An Evaluation of Learning Materials
Designed to Teach 21st Century Problem
Solving Skills in Secondary Education
University of Twente
Educational Science and Technology
Master Thesis
Briëlle Grievink
April 2016
1st supervisor (University of Twente)
Dr. M.R.M. Meelissen
2nd supervisor (University of Twente)
Msc. N.A.M. Maassen
External supervisor (Stichting Leerplan Ontwikkeling)
Dr. P.H.G. Fisser
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Table of contents
Foreword ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
v
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
vi
1. Introduction
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
1.1 Background
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
1.2 Goal of the study ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
2. Theoretical framework ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.1 Education in the 21st century ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
2.2 Problem solving ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
2.3 Conditions for teaching problem solving ……………………………………………………………………………… 14
3. Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17
3.1 Research design
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
3.2 Description of the material ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
3.3 Sample …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
3.4 Procedure for data collection
……………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
3.5 Instruments ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
3.6 Data analysis
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
4. Results of the evaluation based on the literature
……………………………………………………………………….. 24
4.1 Elements to consider when analysing the material ……………………………………………………………….. 24
4.2 Geography material
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
4.3 Physics material ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
5. Results of the evaluation based on the observations ………………………………………………………………….. 31
5.1 Geography lessons ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
5.2 Physics lessons
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
6. Results of the evaluation based on the interviews ……………………………………………………………………… 37
6.1 Influence of the material as support for teaching problem solving
………………………………………….. 37
6.2 External factors influencing use of the material ……………………………………………………………………. 40
7. Conclusion and discussion
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45
7.1 Evaluation based on the literature
………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
7.2 Evaluation based on the observations …………………………………………………………………………………. 47
7.3 Evaluation based on the interviews …………………………………………………………………………………….. 48
7.4 Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
7.5 Final thoughts …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
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References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 55
Appendix A: Geography material …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 59
Appendix B: Physics material ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67
Appendix C: Comparison process Jonassen and the observation scheme …………………………………………. 75
Appendix D: Observation scheme ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
Appendix E: Interview scheme …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 79
Appendix F: Pictures of stages in the analysis process ……………………………………………………………………. 82
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Foreword
This thesis is the result of the research I have conducted for the finalisation of my Master Educational
Science and Technology at the University of Twente. An evaluative study was performed to analyse
curriculum materials developed by SLO (“Stichting Leerplan Ontwikkeling”, i.e. the Netherlands Institute
for Curriculum Development).
Many people have made it possible for me to realise this final project. I would like to thank a few people
in particular. First, I would like to show my gratitude to Petra Fisser from SLO for all her support,
encouragement, and suggestions during the entire project. I always really enjoyed our conversations! I
would also like to thank all other ‘SLO-colleagues” for their suggestions for my project, the nice lunch
breaks, and the little chats during the day.
At the University of Twente, several people have helped me to conduct this research and write this
thesis. First, I want to thank Martina Meelissen for her constructive feedback and suggestions to improve
this thesis. She has really helped me to bring it to the next level. I would also like to thank Erik Jan van
Rossum, who has helped me in the first phase of this final project, and Nathalie Maassen, for the time
and effort she has taken to be my second supervisor for my final project.
I hope you enjoy reading this thesis!
Briëlle Grievink
Hengelo, March 2016
(Bill Waterson, 1992)
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Summary
In order to help teachers incorporate 21st century skills in their teaching, SLO (‘Stichting Leerplan
Ontwikkeling’, i.e. the Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development) has developed educative
curriculum materials. The aim of this qualitative study was to evaluate such material, developed for the
secondary school subjects geography and physics. The evaluation was based on three steps: an analysis of
the curriculum materials based on the characteristics for teaching problem solving skills found in the
literature research, lesson observations in which the materials were applied by teachers, and interviews
with those teachers about their experiences with the material.
From literature it became clear that the main design criteria for teaching problem solving as a 21st
century skill is that such problems need to be ill-structured, which means that they are complex and the
goal state is not known in advance. After analysing the material under review, it could be concluded that
the problem in the geography material was indeed ill-structured and therefore suitable for teaching
problem solving as a 21st century skill. The problem in the physics material was not really ill-structured,
and therefore this material was less suitable. Besides determining whether the problem in the material
was ill-structured or not, it was also established to what extent steps belonging to the problem solving
process were present in the material. In both materials some steps of the problem solving process were
present, yet certainly not all steps were given adequate attention in the material. Especially the
identification of a problem, and monitoring and reflection on the first phases of the problem solving
process were absent in both materials.
Based on the observations with seven teachers it was found that elements that were explicitly part
of the material as student activities were also most of the time present as such in the lessons. Elements
that were less explicitly part of the material were sometimes observed, however more as teacher-directed
activities. In the observation scheme the elements were explicitly stated as student activities, since
incorporating elements of the material in a more student-active way would be desirable when teaching a
21st century skill such as problem solving. Based on the observations it was found that most teachers
applied a teacher-centred teaching method, despite what the problem solving material suggested.
From the interviews it appeared that using the material was a valuable experience for several
teachers, and some teachers expressed the wish to adapt their own material based on this experience.
Although the composition of the material should be taken into account, i.e. regarding the context
dependency of the material, afford easy usage and practical applicability, also learning from colleagues
was mentioned as a beneficial means of support. However, it should be recognised that use of material is
also influenced by external factors, which can either be stimulating or hindering. Stimulating factors are
teacher recognition and school-wide attention for skills such as problem solving, and positive effects
teachers see at the student level. Factors hindering the use of the material are lack of space in the
curriculum, demands posed on or felt by teachers, and lack of awareness of the existence of material.
It is recommended that the material will be adapted so that the problems posed in the material
indeed resemble problem solving as a 21st century skill, and that all steps of such a problem solving process
are present. These steps could best be as explicitly posed as possible, to increase their chances of being
adequately implemented by the teachers using the material. In order to increase the chance of teachers
actually using the material, it should be composed in a way to afford use in different contexts, promote its
usability by incorporating a user-friendly lay-out, and be aimed at practical application.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The goal of primary and secondary education is to prepare children for their future role in society.
However, due to technological developments that afford different ways of communication and elicit
growing amounts of information, society changes rapidly (Thijs, Fisser & Van der Hoeven, 2014). Through
its impact on education, on the economy, and on politics, information technology changes the world. This
changing world poses challenges for its future citizens. In order to prepare students for such a world, new
skills are necessary, which are referred to as ‘21st Century Skills’ (Kuhltau, 2010). These skills are not ‘new’
per se, but are of growing importance in an increasingly complex world for all students to acquire (Thijs et
al., 2014). Therefore, the Dutch Government has asked SLO (‘Stichting Leerplan Ontwikkeling’, i.e. the
Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development) to further explore what these skills encompass, and
how they are and should be implemented in primary and secondary education in the Netherlands (Thijs et
al., 2014).
As part of this exploration, Thijs et al. (2014) identified the following eight 21st century skills:
creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, communication, collaboration, social and cultural skills, self-
regulation, and digital literacy. The skill digital literacy is further subdivided in ICT basic skills,
computational thinking, information literacy, and media literacy. Albeit the fact that there is broad
consensus on the importance of such skills, to effectively implement the skills in the curriculum remains a
challenge in many countries (Gallagher, Hipkins & Zohar, 2012). Although teachers believe these skills to
be important and want to give attention to them in their lessons, they often do not know how exactly to
incorporate the skills in their teaching practice. Especially the skill ‘problem solving’, which Thijs et al.
(2014) define as “recognizing and acknowledging a problem, and determining a course of action in order
to solve that problem” (p. 37) is perceived as difficult by teachers (Thijs et al., 2014).
In the Netherlands, schools vary in which skills they implement and the degree to which they
implement those skills. In primary education, and especially in the upper grades of primary education,
there is significantly more attention for 21st century skills compared to secondary education (Thijs et al.,
2014). Despite these differences in attention for 21st century skills, both teachers in primary education and
secondary education would like to pay more attention to these skills. In order to do so, support is required,
since they do not yet feel adequately prepared to implement such skills in their lessons (Thijs et al., 2014).
Teachers are major factors in changes in educational practice, since their beliefs, attitudes, and
competences shape their teaching (Voogt & Pareja Roblin, 2010). Also for the implementation of 21st
century skills in education Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2010) stress the central role teachers play, and the
necessity to give teachers support in this. In order to support teachers in teaching 21st century skills, Thijs
et al. (2014) propose, amongst other forms of support, to provide teachers with curricular elaborative
materials. In such material, a certain skill is integrated in a lesson, thus showing how a skill could be
implemented in teaching practice.
1.2 Goal of the study
Since 21st century skills are not yet adequately implemented in education in the Netherlands and teachers
expressed having difficulty implementing these skills (Thijs et al., 2014), SLO has started to make learning
materials to support teachers. This material provides information on what a specific skill encompasses and
how this skill could be taught, by providing an example of a lesson with the skill and the reasoning behind
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the material. It is not yet known whether this material will actually help teachers in implementing aspects
of a specific skill in their lesson. Furthermore, the way in which this support material is perceived by
teachers is not known. This is important to identify as well, since teachers are the target group. To address
these questions, an evaluative study was conducted.
The study focused on two materials developed for the 21st century skill problem solving in
secondary education. This focus was chosen, since (as stated above) teachers especially perceive the skill
problem solving as difficult, and given the fact that secondary schools pay significantly less attention to
21st century skills compared to primary schools. In one evaluated material students were asked to identify
a good location for a new playground in their area. The other evaluated material challenged students to
think about how a snowman could be kept from melting longest when temperature is rising.
The material was evaluated on several aspects. The extent to which a lesson taught with the
material encompassed the skill problem solving as a 21st century skill was examined, as well as how
teachers perceived the provided material. Furthermore, when material aims to support teachers in
incorporating problem solving in their lesson, it is important that this material covers all elements of
problem solving as a 21st century skill. Therefore, the content of the support material was also evaluated
based on problem solving literature. Based on these evaluations, recommendations were given to further
improve the developed material and to guide the design of yet to be developed material.
Research questions
The following research questions guided this evaluative study:
1) To what extent are the characteristics of problem solving as a 21st century skill, according to the
literature, present in the material under review?
2) To what extent is the material under review implemented by secondary school teachers with
respect to the 21st century skill problem solving?
3) How do secondary school teachers perceive the material under review, aimed at supporting
teachers in teaching the 21st century skill problem solving?
Outline of the thesis
In the next chapter (Chapter 2) the theoretical dimensions of the research are described, by introducing
concepts such as problem solving, and conditions for teaching problem solving skills. The third chapter is
concerned with the methodology used for this study. The results of this study are elaborated on in the
chapters 4, 5, and 6, where in each separate chapter the results concerning a research question are
described. Finally, in Chapter 7 conclusions are drawn and the findings are discussed in the light of the
literature.
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2. Theoretical framework
In this chapter, the literature that guided this research is discussed. First, the importance for 21st century
education and teaching problem solving in a changing world is described. Subsequently, the concept of
problem solving and what it encompasses as a 21st century skill is illustrated. Finally, the conditions needed
for implementing problem solving as a 21st century skill in education are elaborated on.
2.1 Education in the 21st century
Due to technological developments, the world has changed from an industrial age in the 20th century to
an information age in the 21st century, and this changing world asks for different skills and knowledge of
its citizens (Kivunja, 2015). A static body of knowledge, which was sufficient for the demands posed on
people in the 20th century, is not adequate for 21st century living anymore. In the fast-paced changing
world of the 21st century, although it is still necessary to acquire knowledge of core subjects, it is more
valuable to know how to employ the attained knowledge and skills, so that people can adapt their
knowledge to fit the changing circumstances they face (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008; Sahin, 2009).
One of the most important goals of education is to equip students for their personal and work-
related life after school (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Kivunja (2014) states that the changed world calls for a
new learning paradigm. The aim in such a new learning paradigm is not to prepare students for life in an
industrial society (which was the goal of the pre-21st century learning paradigm), but rather to provide
students with appropriate skills so that they will be adequately prepared for life in the 21st century (Kivunja,
2014). According to Carlgren (2013) it would be good to teach students in secondary education such 21st
century skills, because although in post-secondary institutions it is aimed to implement these skills in the
curriculum, they often fail to explicitly teach it to their students and provide them with support. For some
students this might not be problematic since they will already be able to use such skills and therefore not
need support, but some students might require support in order to adequately use the skills (Carlgren,
2013). To ensure that all students have equal opportunities in both post-secondary education and their
future work-life, it would therefore be good to ensure that students learn the skills to thrive in the 21st
century during their secondary education (Carlgren, 2013).
Trilling and Fadel (2009) distinguish three categories of 21st century skills that students should
acquire through education, namely learning and innovation skills, career and life skills, and digital literacy
skills. Together with core subject knowledge, these can be combined into a formula for job-readiness with
21st century skills, meaning that all of these categories and core subject knowledge are necessary to obtain
through education in order to prepare students for work in the 21st century (Kivunja, 2015).
2.2 Problem solving
One of the skills in the learning and innovation skills domain is problem solving (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
Several authors point at the importance of this skill for students to obtain. According to Robitaille and
Maldonado (2015) business owners and educators perceive problem solving, together with critical
thinking, as the most important skill for high school students to achieve. Others also articulate the
importance for students to attain the skill problem solving (e.g. Stoyanov & Kirschner, 2007; Zmuda, 2009),
and Jonassen (2010) states that problem solving is the most important cognitive goal of education.
This skill to solve problems is important to acquire for students who attend school now, since they
will in their daily life encounter many problem solving tasks, in their work-related life as well as in their
personal life (Malouff & Schutte, 2008). Trilling and Fadel (2009) state that in the 21st century great
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problems have to be solved, and that citizens who can help in solving these problems are needed.
Therefore, students have to be equipped with the ability to deliver a contribution in solving these problems
(Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
Although the concept problem solving is not new, as is indicated above it becomes even more
relevant in a world with rapid societal and technological changes (Stoyanov & Kirschner, 2007), and is thus
an important skill to consider when incorporating 21st century skills in the curriculum in order to
adequately prepare students for after-school life. To understand how problem solving should be
implemented in 21st century education, it is first important to consider what problem solving as a concept
encompasses.
Types of problem solving
That the concept of problem solving is not new, is reflected in the fact that Dewey pointed out in his book
dating back to 1933 that we learn by learning to think (Hermanowicz, 1961). This reflective thinking
comprises three steps, namely first the identification of a problem, second studying the problem, and
finally reaching a conclusion on the problem (Hiebert et al., 1996). In this context, a problem is defined as
something that the person involved in the situation views as being difficult and complicated, and for which
s/he thinks a solution should be found (Hiebert et al., 1996).
Another way to determine whether there is a problem, is to view problems as having two critical
attributes. First, there should be a difference between a goal state and the current situation, and second,
it should be worthwhile to someone to bridge that difference, for either social, cultural, or intellectual
reasons. Closing that gap between the current state and the goal state is considered to be the problem
solving process (Jonassen, 2000). Also according to Hayes (1980) there is a problem when there is a
difference between a goal state and the current state, and is not known to the solver how to find a way to
bridge that gap (Hayes, 1980).
Bodner (1987) elaborates on the definition posed by Hayes, and indicates that whether the
problem solver knows a way to close the gap or not, determines whether there is a problem or an exercise.
According to Bodner (1987) with an exercise the solver knows how to close the gap, whereas with a
problem it is not clear to the solver how the gap could be closed. Therefore, whether there is a problem
or an exercise is also determined by characteristics of the solver (Bodner, 1987). Schoenfeld (1992) also
points at a dichotomy concerning problems, by referring to the definition of a problem provided by
Webster’s Dictionary. In this definition it is stated that a problem could either be something mathematical,
in which it is required to perform a certain tasks, or it could be a question, that is both difficult and
complicated (Schoenfeld, 1992).
Samson (2015) mentions Creative Problem Solving (CPS) as a teaching strategy to engage students
in their learning and motivate them to learn. In CPS students have to solve ‘wicked’ problems, i.e. problems
that are real, unsolved, vague, and without a clear answer (Samson, 2015). This definition resembles the
definition that Ge and Land (2004) pose for ill-structured problems. Such problems are situated in the real
world, ill defined, complex, and are open-ended, meaning that it is not known beforehand in what line the
solution should be sought (Ge & Land, 2004).
Jonassen (1997) distinguishes different types of problems, which on one side resemble the
previously mentioned exercises, and on the other hand ‘wicked’ and ill-structured problems. The three
types of problems that Jonassen (1997) identifies are puzzle problems, well-structured problems, and ill-
structured problems. These types of problems are not strictly separate classifications, but rather lie on a
continuum from decontextualised problems with one solution to context-specific problems with multiple
possible solutions (Jonassen, 1997).
Puzzle problems lie on one end of the continuum, for they are decontextualised and have one
correct solution. All elements that are required to reach that solution are known, and a specific procedure
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is required to reach it in the most efficient manner, which is therefore the correct procedure (Jonassen,
1997). These problems resemble the exercises that were mentioned above.
Well-structured problems are more context dependent compared to puzzle problems. Well-
structured problems are well defined with a noted goal state. All elements that are required to solve the
problem are known and are presented in a clear way. The problem solver has to apply a limited number
and constrained set of rules and principles in order to solve the problem. A well-structured problem has a
presumed solution, and there is a preferred procedure for reaching that solution (Jonassen, 1997; Ge &
Land, 2004).
In contrast to well-structured problems, ill-structured problems are ill defined and possess some
uncertainty. The goal state might be unclear or vaguely defined, and it is not apparent which elements are
required to solve the problem. For ill-structured problems, there is often not one single solution, and there
may be multiple routes to reach a solution. There are no general rules or principles that will afford success
in most situations, and therefore the actions that will lead to success are ambiguous. Also, what one person
views as an acceptable solution, might be considered unacceptable for another. Part of the process for
solving ill-structured problems is to interpret the problem, and therefore choices made during the process
have to be defended by the problem solver through the provision of arguments. Ill-structured problems
are very context dependent, and are the most likely problems to encounter in everyday life. Examples of
ill-structured problems include political and social dilemmas (Jonassen, 1997; Ge & Land, 2004).
By viewing types of problems as laying on a continuum from decontextualised problems with one
solution to context-specific problems with multiple possible solutions, it is possible to label a problem as
being more well-structured or more ill-structured in nature. This manner of labelling thus provides a way
to categorise a problem based on characteristics innate to the problem, rather than it is being (partially)
determined based on characteristics of the problem solver. Therefore, the typology of problems as posed
by Jonassen (1997) provides a good way of interpreting problems, and is therefore taken as a basis in this
study.
Problem solving as a 21st century skill
In order to determine how problem solving should be incorporated as a skill in 21st century education, it is
important to examine what problem solving as a 21st century skill encompasses. To do so, the typology
determined by Jonassen (1997) is taken as a starting point. This typology is suitable to use, since it does
not presume a strict classification, but rather provides a continuum on which problems lie.
Because of its characteristics, puzzle problems are not consistent with most real life problems
people will encounter (Jonassen, 1997). Therefore, such problems might not be most relevant to use for
the educational purpose of preparing students for life after school in which they will need to be able to
solve complex problems.
Well-structured problems are the type of problems that are often found in educational settings,
where e.g. students have to solve problems by applying the knowledge attained through a certain chapter
or lesson-series (Jonassen, 1997). Although well-structured problems are more context dependent
compared to puzzle-problems, the skills that are required to solve both types of problems are only
transferable to similar problems to the one that is being practiced (Jonassen 1997).
It is assumed that learning to solve well-structured problems in school will afford the ability to
solve complex, situated, real-life problems, however Jonassen (1997) points out that such real-life
problems ask for ill-structured problem solving skills, and learning to solve well-structured problems in a
school-setting provides limited transferability and relevance for solving complex, real-life problems.
Therefore, in order to adequately prepare students for work and life in the 21st century, it would be most
beneficial if schools teach students how to deal with ill-structured problems, since these are the kind of
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problems that they will likely encounter in everyday life (Jonassen, 1997). Problem solving as a 21st century
skill can thus be described as ill-structured problem solving.
The process for ill-structured problem solving
In addition to a typology of problems, Jonassen (1997) has also articulated the processes that learners
should go through when they either solve a well-structured or an ill-structured problem. Since it was
concluded above that problem solving as a 21st century skill mostly resembles ill-structured problem
solving, it seems logical to also take this process, which comprises seven steps, as a basis in this study.
Others (e.g. Ge & Land, 2004) have also identified processes involved in ill-structured problem solving, but
these processes often provide less detail in comparison to the steps distinguished by Jonassen (1997). The
process for ill-structured problem solving as articulated by Jonassen (1997) is described in some detail
below.
First, learners as problem solvers have to understand why there is a problem, and how this
problem has emerged in the specific context (Jonassen, 1997). Such a mental representation of the
situation is known as the problem space (Eseryel, Ifenthaler & Ge, 2013). This first step of articulating the
problem space, is considered to be a very important step in the problem solving process, since in order to
adequately solve the problem, it is necessary that one has ample knowledge on the possible causes of the
problem, and contextual factors that influence the problem (Jonassen, 1997). Eseryel et al. (2013) point
out that the capability of the problem solver to create an adequate mental representation of the situation,
highly affects the quality of the problem solving. Ge and Land (2004) also mention the importance for the
problem solver to interpret the problem by elaborating on what constitutes that problem, and to gather
an understanding of the context in which the problem is situated (Ge & Land, 2004). This is the process of
creating a problem representation, and is an important process in solving an ill-structured problem, since
it forms the basis for decisions that will have to be made later on in the process (Ge & Land, 2004). Students
however might be tempted to start with a solution process instead of devoting time and energy to
understand and interpret the problem at hand (Ge & Land, 2004).
An ill-structured problem is complex, and there may be various opinions and perspectives
concerning the problem space. Different stakeholders might view the problem differently, and also have
different criteria on which they assess a solution. When solving a problem, it is important to consider all
these different perspectives, because it demonstrates that there is not a single, straightforward solution
for an ill-structured problem. Identification and clarification of these alternate perspectives constitutes
the second step in the problem solving process (Jonassen, 1997).
The third step in the problem solving process is to generate possible solutions to the problem. The
identification of the various positions different stakeholders may have towards the problem in the second
step form the basis for generating possible solutions to the problem. Different views on the problem may
ask for different satisfying solutions, and it is the problem solver’s task in this third step to generate such
varying solutions (Jonassen, 1997).
As a fourth step the problem solvers have to provide arguments and counterarguments for the
generated possible solutions, to assess the feasibility of each possible solution. In doing so, they also have
to look back at the problem representation and the generated possible solutions, to make further
adjustments to improve both (Jonassen, 1997). Also according to Ge and Land (2004), the justification of
actions taken and choices made is part of ill-structured problem solving.
The fifth step articulated by Jonassen (1997) is not so much a separate step, but is a reflective
process that occurs throughout the first fourth steps of the problem solving process. In these first four
steps, it is important that the learners constantly reflect on what they know and how this affects the
problem space and the possible solutions (Jonassen, 1997). Most ill-structured problems are so complex,
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that in a school-based context it is not possible to actually implement the suggested solution. For this
reason, most school-based problem-solving activities go no further than the fifth step (Jonassen, 1997).
Ill-structured problems do often not have a single solution that is correct. Therefore, when a
solution has been implemented it is necessary to monitor whether it functions as was envisioned. Both
the implementation and monitoring of a solution form the sixth step in the problem solving process
(Jonassen, 1997). The process of monitoring and evaluating is by Ge and Land (2004) mentioned in relation
to the whole ill-structured problem solving process. This means that during the entire ill-structured
problem solving-process, the problem solver should reflect on how things are going and what could be
improved (Ge & land, 2004).
The seventh and final step in the problem solving process as articulated by Jonassen (1997) is to
adapt the solution. Once the solution has been implemented and monitored, it might be necessary to
adapt that solution. This adapted solution should again be implemented and monitored, and in that way
it can become an iterative process (Jonassen, 1997).
In Table 2.1 a schematic overview is given of the process for solving ill-structured problems as
described above.
Table 2.1
Process for ill-structured problem solving (according to Jonassen, 1997)
5) Process
of
monitoring
and
reflecting
1)
Articulating problem space
2)
Identification of stakeholders (and their perspectives)
3)
Generating possible solutions
4)
Assessing viability of possible solutions
6)
Implementing and monitoring solution *
7)
Adapting solution *
Note. Steps marked with an asterisk (*) are according to Jonassen (1997) often not possible
to perform in a school-based context, because of complexity of ill-structured problems.
Related 21st century skills
In this study, problem solving as a 21st century skill is defined as ill-structured problem solving constituted
by Jonassen (1997). However, in order to solve ill-structured problems, also other 21st century skills are
related to some extent.
As mentioned earlier, the characteristics of ill-structured problem solving show great resemblance
with CPS. Samson (2015) regards CPS as a group activity, which thus asks for collaboration (Samson, 2015).
Ge & Land (2004) also point at the relatedness of the skill collaboration to problem solving. They state that
peer interactions during the process of problem representation (the first step in the ill-structured problem
solving process) can improve the outcomes of this step. The reasoning behind this statement is that when
students work together with their peers, they will presumably identify more problem representations, and
will take more factors into account (Ge & Land, 2004). Therefore, collaboration, although it is not a
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prerequisite for ill-structured problem solving, is a 21st century skill that can enhance the problem solving
process.
When generating possible solutions for a problem, which is the third step in the problem solving
process according to Jonassen (1997), creativity is required. This will enable problem solvers not only to
use their prior knowledge when generating solutions, but also to use unrelated thoughts and emotions
(Jonassen, 1997). Also, as the name logically implies, in CPS creativity is a key element (Samson, 2015).
Creativity is thus a 21st century skill that is necessary for at least part of the problem solving process.
Wopereis, Brand-Gruwel & Vermetten (2008) refer to the term information problem solving as a
type of problem solving in which the current state is an information deficiency, which is fulfilled in the goal
situation (i.e. that determines whether the problem is solved). Since in modern society an abundance of
information is at hand, people need skills to locate, extract, and use relevant information to meet the
information need posed by a problem. This asks for so-called information literacy skills, a sub-skill of the
21st century skill digital literacy (Wopereis et al., 2008).
Hence, when learning the skill problem solving, students automatically engage in other 21st
century skills as well, either through the ill-structured problem solving process or the type of problem to
be solved.
2.3 Conditions for teaching problem solving
In order to incorporate problem solving as a 21st century skill in education, three conditions could be
distilled from several literature sources that are worthwhile to consider during this implementation
process. First, the learning environment should endorse teaching problem solving as a 21st century.
Second, teachers should be given support in teaching problem solving as a 21st century skill, and finally,
educative curriculum materials could be used to provide teachers with the needed support. These three
conditions are clarified below.
A student centred, active learning environment
Jonassen (1997) notes that ill-structured problem solving matches ideas of constructivism, as knowledge
acquisition is dependent on the learner’s experience, and therefore context dependent (Jonassen, 1997).
People actively construct their own reality, based on what they experience and their currently held mental
models (Samson, 2015). According to constructivism, learning occurs through such active meaning making.
Knowledge cannot be transmitted as such, but has to be constructed through the mental activity
performed by the learner (Michael, 2006). In order for students to gain knowledge, they therefore have to
construe their own representations of reality, and cannot receive knowledge as such from e.g. their
teachers (Prince & Felder, 2006).
Since, as Jonassen (1997) pointed out, problem solving matches constructivism, teaching problem
solving skills to students also implies a certain activity from them. According to Michael (2006), actively
engaging students in their learning process can be facilitated through a student centred, active learning
environment. In such a learning environment students learn through building mental models, by testing
and repairing those mental models, and subsequently using them in new situations. This way of learning
is likely to achieve meaningful learning according to Michael (2006).
Active learning means that students are engaged in activities that facilitate them to reflect on ideas
and ways to use those ideas. Such mental activity might be achieved in students through letting them
gather information, and also through problem solving activities (Michael, 2006). By means of active
learning, student learning will usually go beyond the mere memorisation and recollection of facts. Instead,
students will be engaged in the process of constructing new knowledge, by integrating new experiences
with prior knowledge (Newman, Lamendola, Morris Deyoe & Connor, 2015). This fits the idea of
15
constructivism, since its aim is to teach students how to use their mind, so they can use what they have
learned in new situations (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). Active learning will students thus allow to transfer
what they have learned to new situations they will face in their life after school (Newman et al., 2015),
which is the aim of teaching students 21st century skills.
Michael (2006) mentions student centredness in education as another aspect to engage students
in their learning. With student centred instruction, instruction is largely influenced by the learners. It is
often explained as opposed to teacher centred, in which teacher activity in front of the class determines
to a large extent what is learned (Michael, 2006). Zmuda (2009) also states that a more student centred
approach is necessary to ensure 21st century education. According to her, it is not enough to merely
incorporate new skills in a curriculum, the way of teaching has to be adapted as well (Zmuda, 2009).
Therefore, it would also not be sufficient to merely incorporate the aforementioned process for
ill-structured problem solving by Jonassen (1997) in lessons to learn students how they can deal with ill-
structured problems. A pedagogical approach that is student centred and elicits active learning should be
present in schools in order to teach for the 21st century skill problem solving.
Teacher support
Although in a student centred, active learning environment focus is on the learners, it does not mean that
the teacher does not have an important role (Michael, 2006). In a student centred learning environment,
teachers should adapt their teaching to the needs of individual students, by recognising what an individual
student needs rather than walking through the same program year after year (Zmuda, 2009). Tsoukalas
(2012) states that when the goal is to promote 21st century skills in students, teachers have to guide
students instead of feeding them information. Teachers’ role would be that of coach and facilitator, so
they can help learners become actively involved in their own learning and to facilitate an environment for
learning in which students feel secure to become actively involved (Samson, 2015).
According to Schoen and Fusarelli (2008) a more active learning environment that is more personal
differs from the traditional teacher directed approach, and Michael (2006) mentions that a student
centred, active learning environment does not occur out of nowhere. Michael (2006) also states that
implementing such a learning environment might ask for a different approach to teaching from the
teacher, for which deliberate implementation is crucial. Therefore he recommends to view the teacher as
a learner of this approach (Michael, 2006). Tsoukalas (2012) also points to the fact that it is not easy for
teachers to change their teaching. Teachers will need to feel supported, since another approach to
teaching requires risk-taking from the teachers (Tsoukalas, 2012). Given these reasons, it would be wise
to give teachers support in order to implement 21st century skills in the curriculum.
Carlgren (2013) gives another reason why it might be advisable to give teachers support when 21st
century education is concerned. She poses three reasons why students in high schools do not yet properly
learn skills such as problem solving. One reason concerns the western educational model, and a second
reason has to do with the innate complexity of the skills. The third reasons Carlgren poses affects the
competence teachers show in teaching skills such as problem solving, and is related to the need for teacher
support. Some teachers lack in ability, do not feel confident, and do not comprehend the skills such as
problem solving well enough to teach them appropriately. This might partially occur because they were
never taught how to use and teach those skills themselves (Carlgran, 2013). Teachers working in high
schools stretch over multiple generations, which means that the education and upbringing these teachers
had differs for groups of teachers. The education and upbringing that teachers have had, molds the way
in which they view and use skills, and consequently also influences the way in which they teach those skills
to their students. Even though teachers might adequately use the skills themselves, it does not guarantee
that they have the ability to adequately teach the skills to their students (Carlgren, 2013). Therefore,
16
providing teachers with support would be a good idea when incorporating 21st century skills such as
problem solving in education.
Educative curriculum materials
Using educative curriculum materials is a way to support teachers in their learning (Schneider, Krajcik &
Marx, 2000). Curriculum materials are resources that aim to guide teachers’ instructions, which often take
the shape of printed teacher guides or student workbooks. Educative curriculum materials are curriculum
materials that incorporate educative features for teachers (Davis, Sullivan Palincsar, Arias, Schultz Bismack,
Marulis & Iwashyna, 2014). In this way, both student learning and teacher learning is facilitated through
such material. Educative features that are incorporated in these materials, are any textual or visual
information that is aimed at supporting teachers in their teaching (Davis et al., 2014). Educative curriculum
materials differ from standard teacher guides, since it is aimed not only to give teachers support for
teaching strategies, but also to ensure teacher learning (Davis & Krajcik, 2005).
Educative curriculum materials should provide teachers with the rationale behind the choices
made in the material, rather than merely guide teachers’ action (Davis & Krajcik, 2005). Through the
provision of such a rationale, this will help teachers in the enactment of the material. It will also help
teachers in making choices that are still in line with the rationale in the material when they wish to adapt
certain recommendations posed in the material, to make it more fit for their particular situation (Davis et
al, 2014). As such, a rationale promotes teacher autonomy, since it gives teachers space to adapt the
material and apply the information in the material more flexibly (Davis & Krajcik, 2005).
Educative curriculum materials should not be used instead of other teacher professional
development programs, but because of the characteristics, its use has certain advantages (Schneider et
al., 2000). Teachers can use educative materials in their own classroom, over a longer period. This is
different from e.g. a professional development training that is given twice a year, outside the classroom.
Teachers use curriculum materials often, since it helps them to structure and plan their activities. It is not
something new teachers will have to adopt, it is just a different form of curriculum materials. Finally, since
almost all teachers use curriculum materials, by incorporating educative features into curriculum material
it is a form of professional development which can be relatively easy be implemented by a large number
of teachers (Schneider et al., 2000).
Summary
In this chapter it was established that problem solving as a 21st century skill mostly resembles ill-structured
problems. In order to determine the degree to which a problem is ill-structured, the typology for problems
and the continuum on which they lie as described by Jonassen (1997), provide an adequate starting point
for determining the extent to which a certain problem is indeed ill-structured, and thus suitable for
teaching problem solving as a 21st century skill. In addition, when teaching for 21st century skills such as
problem solving, three conditions that are important to consider were identified. These conditions are a
student centred, active learning environment, teacher support, and educative curriculum materials. These
are the core theoretical constructs that underly the present study. In the next chapter it will be elucidated
how this study to evaluate the material under review was conducted.
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3. Method
In this chapter, the methodology used in this study is described. First, the research design is explained. The
material for both geography and physics is described afterwards. Subsequently, the sample and the
procedure for data collection are elucidated. Finally, the instruments used to gather the data are
described, and it is explained how the data were analysed.
3.1 Research design
This evaluative study was descriptive in nature, and consisted of three parts. Each part was aimed at
evaluating the material under review, all with their own focus related to a research question. The first
research question focused on evaluating the material on the extent to which it incorporated problem
solving as a 21st century skill (as defined according to the literature). This formed the basis for the second
research question, through which it was aimed to identify the extent to which the elements of problem
solving in the material were indeed implemented by the participating teachers. Subsequently, the third
research question’s goal was to explore how teachers perceive the material under review.
In order to determine the extent of problem solving in a lesson, it was first necessary to establish
to what extent elements of problem solving as a 21st century skill were indeed present in the material
under review. In order to answer the first research question, it was therefore described to what extent the
elements of problem solving as a 21st century skill were present in the material under review. To ascertain
what problem solving as a 21st century skill encompasses (and thus what elements should be present in
material for teaching the skills problem solving), a literature study was conducted, whose results can be
found in Chapter 2.
After determining the extent to which the characteristics of problem solving as a 21st century skill
were present in the material under review, the following step was to describe how this material was
implemented by teachers with regard to the skill problem solving. The lessons taught with the material
were observed, in order to describe the degree to which the teachers taught the skill problem solving in a
lesson, and thereby to answer the second research question.
These first two research questions focused on the intended and implemented lesson. That is, both
the degree to which the intended lesson comprised problem solving (through examining the material on
the extent of problem solving in it), and the degree of problem solving in the implemented lesson (through
observing how teachers taught the lesson with the material concerning the skill problem solving) were
described.
The focus of the third research question was to evaluate how teachers perceive the material under
review. Through interviews, teachers who worked with the material were asked to give their opinion on
it, i.e. what they valued in it and what they thought could be improved.
3.2 Description of the material
Two materials were evaluated for this study: one for geography, and one for physics. Both materials are
described below.
Geography material
The material for geography was developed by curriculum developers at SLO and is called ‘Where should
the new playground be located?’. In the lessons with this material, students are told that their local council
has noticed that there are too few playgrounds in their neighbourhood, and that, in order for children to
18
live healthily, it is important that there should be enough facilities to play outside. The council does not
know where this playground could be best located, and what the layout of this playground should be. They
therefore have assigned the students with the (fictional) task to find a good location for the new
playground, and also to determine what this playground should look like. Through activities specified in
the material, the students are guided through the process of solving this problem. The material for
geography is in Dutch and can be found in Appendix A.
Physics material
Curriculum developers at SLO also made the material for physics, which is called ‘The snowman’. In the
lesson taught with this material, the students need to think about a problem that they could encounter by
themselves, namely how they could preserve a snowman longer, even when temperature rises. Starting
point of the lesson is a so-called Concept Cartoon, in which an everyday situation is presented with
comments from different viewpoints on that situation. In the case of the snowman, the concept cartoon
depicts an image of a snowman and three students. These three students all express a different viewpoint.
Student A states that you should not put a coat on the snowman, because it will cause it to melt faster.
Student B on the other hand says that a coat will keep the snowman cold, and thereby delaying the melting
process of the snowman. According to student C a coat will not make much difference. Through thinking
about this by themselves and discussing their reasoning with peers, a joint decision has to be made on
how the snowman could be preserved longer. The students also have to conduct an experiment, through
which it is aimed to discover the soundness of their decision. By thinking of this problem and how it could
be solved, it is aimed that students, apart from gaining experience with problem solving skills, will learn
about the physical concepts of heat transfer and thermal insulation. The material for physics is in Dutch
and can be found in Appendix B.
3.3 Sample
In this study, only secondary school teachers teaching the subjects geography or physics in the first grade
(students aged 12) were asked to participate. Because of practical reasons (i.e. the participating teachers
had to be observed when teaching the lesson with the material within a limited time span), only teachers
working in schools in the relative proximity of the researcher (i.e. in the east of The Netherlands) were
approached to participate. Also, all approached secondary school teachers teaching the aforementioned
subjects that were willing to participate were included in the study, no further selection criteria were
employed. The sample used in this study could therefore be described as a convenience sample, since the
most efficient and convenient way to obtain the sample was used (Boudah, 2011). Yet, for this research, a
convenience sample was not problematic, since its aim was not to generalise. Instead, it was a first
exploration as to how the newly developed materials were used and perceived by teachers in order to
gather an understanding of how the material should be further developed. This purpose fits the qualitative
approach taken in this study, in which the aim is not to generalise results but rather to provide an
understanding of a phenomenon in a real context (Marshall, 1996).
Contacting the respondents
Taking into account the time span of the research, contacting the teachers on schools took place shortly
before the summer holidays of the school year 2014/2015. In order to ask the applicable teachers to
participate (i.e. teachers teaching either geography or physics to first graders), 15 secondary schools were
approached for contact details of all such teachers. Of these 15 schools, 11 teachers agreed to participate
in the research. In addition, personal contacts of the researcher were used to get in touch with teachers.
19
Through these contacts, 4 teachers who were willing to participate were found. Thus, before the summer
holidays, the total number of teachers that had agreed to participate in the study was 15.
After the summer holidays, these 15 teachers were approached again to make concrete
appointments for the observation(s) and subsequent interview. Unfortunately, it was not possible to make
appointments with all teachers in the allocated weeks for data collection, or made appointments could in
the end not proceed because of personal circumstances of the teachers (e.g. illness), causing some
dropouts. Also, some teachers withdrew from the research. The total number of teachers that eventually
did participate in the research was therefore 7, of which 4 teachers were initially contacted through
contacts of the researcher and the other 3 teachers were initially contacted via school secretaries. Two
participating teachers worked at the same school, the other teachers all worked at different schools
located in different cities.
Characteristics of participants
Seven secondary school teachers participated in this study, of which 4 taught geography and 3 taught
physics. Mean age of all the teachers was 46.7 years, ranging from 28 to 61 years. Only one of the teachers
was female. Mean average of the years working in education was 23.7, ranging from 7 to 38. The exact
age and years of working experience of all teachers, together with other participant characteristics, are
displayed in Table 1. For this report, all teachers were randomly given a letter (from A to G), thereby
ensuring anonymity of the participating teachers.
Table 1
Characteristics per participant
Teacher
Subject taught
Age in years
Sex
Number of years working
experience in education
Teacher A
Geography
60
Male
38
Teacher B*
Geography
41
Female
18
Teacher C
Physics
28
Male
7
Teacher D
Physics
40
Male
18
Teacher E*
Geography
59
Male
31
Teacher F
Physics
38
Male
16
Teacher G
Geography
61
Male
38
Note. The teachers marked with an asterisk (*) worked at the same school. The other teachers all worked
at different schools.
3.4 Procedure for data collection
In order to collect the data, appointments with the participating teachers took place four weeks before
and one week after the autumn break in the school year 2015/2016. Since secondary school teachers are
bound to rosters for when they can teach a certain class, and data collection was allocated to certain
weeks, it was anticipated in advance that it might not be possible to observe all lessons taught with the
material under review. This was especially the case for the material developed for the geography lesson,
as this material spread over 2 to 3 lessons. Therefore, it was decided upon that of all participating teachers,
at least the first lesson with the material would be observed, and further as much lessons as possible. The
first lesson was chosen, since in this lesson the first step of the problem solving process would be covered.
As is described in Chapter 2, the first step in the problem solving process is a very important one, since in
this step the knowledge is attained on possible causes of the problem and the context in which the
problem is situated.
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When appointments were made with the teachers, the applicable material (either for geography
or physics) was sent to the teachers. This consisted of material for the students, an explanation for the
teacher, and an appendix with a ‘checklist’ for assessing own material. In addition to this material, the
observation scheme used for this study was sent to the teachers. During the observations, the researcher
sat at the back of the class, in order to be as unobtrusive as possible, and in that way observe the lesson
as it would normally take place. When a teacher had taught all lessons using the support material, an
appointment was made for the interview. In this way, the teacher could be interviewed on all his or her
experiences with the material. Teachers were asked permission to record the interview, so that a verbatim
transcript of the interview could be made afterwards.
Ethics have been considered throughout the research, e.g. by asking the teachers for permission
to record the interview. Also, teachers were provided with the observation scheme used in this study,
thereby providing transparency to them on what they would be observed. Teachers knew they could
withdraw from the research at any given time, and the names of the teachers to the corresponding data
are only known to the researcher.
3.5 Instruments
To gather data for this research, two instruments were used: an observation scheme and an interview
scheme. In the following section it will be explained how these were developed.
Observation scheme
The aim of the observation scheme was to observe the extent to which a teacher implemented the
material under review concerning the skill problem solving. In order to do so, it was important to take the
rationale that constituted the material under review in consideration, since in an ideal situation this had
to be observed. Therefore, the observation scheme was based on the process for problem solving that was
also used when developing the material. This process comprised 7 main steps (namely: recognising and
clarifying the problem, analysing the problem, considering possible solutions, selecting a solution, applying
that solution, and evaluating), each with several sub-steps.
These main steps, that together with the sub-steps constituted the observation scheme, are to a
large extent consistent with the steps distinguished by Jonassen (1997) for solving ill-structured problems.
One step in the process articulated by Jonassen (1997), namely to identify and clarify the perspectives of
different stakeholders, is not mentioned explicitly in the process used to develop the material, and
therefore also not in the observation scheme. This could however be seen as part of the process of
analysing the problem. Two steps identified by Jonassen (1997) are not reflected in the process present in
the material, namely the monitoring and reflecting on the problem solving process, and adapting the
solution. However, as Jonassen (1997) points out, monitoring and reflecting could be viewed as being not
a separate step in the process, but rather a continuous process when solving a problem. All other processes
mentioned by Jonassen (1997) are present in the observation scheme, and also one extra step was
included (namely selecting a solution). The exact differences and similarities between the process used
during the development of the material (and thus underpinning the material under review) and the
process articulated by Jonassen (1997) are portrayed in Appendix C.
Since this study focused on the extent to which there is attention for the skill problem solving in a
lesson through actions taken by the teacher, the elements comprising the observation scheme are
formulated as such. Another important aspect concerning the skill problem solving, is that it is crucial that
teachers guide their students, but let them think for themselves, rather than providing them with ‘correct
answers’ in each step. The importance of the role of teacher as a coach and facilitator was also elaborated
21
on in Chapter 2. Therefore, in the observation scheme, it is stated explicitly that the teacher lets the
students do something.
In the observation scheme, by ticking the box for ‘yes’ or ‘no’, per sub-step it could be scored
whether the teacher did a certain step in the lesson or not. Apart from ticking the boxes per sub-step,
some space per (sub-)step was given in the observation scheme to add notes, so that the reason for ticking
a certain box could be further specified. This enabled interpreting the reasoning behind ticking a certain
box. Besides ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it could be the case that a certain step was not applicable for an observed lesson
(e.g. when this step would be covered in another lesson). To provide for such circumstances, the category
‘not applicable’ (‘n.a.’) was added.
Although the observation scheme was based on the process for ill-structured problem solving as
articulated by Jonassen (1997), it was not derived from literature as a whole, and therefore it was not
validated through research. That is why the proposed observation scheme was showed to experts and a
pilot was conducted first. A blanc observation scheme can be found in Appendix D.
Interview scheme
The second instrument used in this study was an interview scheme, which was semi-structured in nature.
The goal of the interview was to discover how teachers perceive the material. Therefore, the interview
was partially structured based on the different elements constituting the material (i.e. the material for the
students, the explanation for the teacher, and the checklist). Also how the teachers thought they could
use the material for transferring it to their own lessons, which is a goal of the material under review, was
a topic to be covered in the interview. These topics had to be commented on by the teachers, but further
topics to be covered, and the exact order of topics was not determined beforehand. Since it was a first
exploration on how teachers perceive the material, it was chosen to question them on certain elements
in an as open as possible way, to give them the chance to come up with things that they find important,
but may not be mentioned in the research literature. Therefore, this semi-structured interview format was
chosen, because it would give enough room to let the teachers mention certain elements that were not
anticipated in advance.
This instrument was very context-specific, and therefore an existing instrument was not available.
The instrument used in this study was validated to some extent by letting an expert on qualitative research
examine it and through piloting it first. The interview scheme can be found in Appendix E.
Piloting of the instruments
Both the observation scheme and the interview scheme were piloted. During the pilot of the observation
scheme, a lot of notes were taken in addition to ticking ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to elements in the observation scheme.
This was to some extent anticipated when constructing the observation scheme, since there was space
dedicated for comments with every (sub-)element of the observation scheme. This space was however a
bit limited, and thus with the subsequent observations, notes were also taken on additional paper. The
observation scheme as such was not changed based on the pilot. The formulation of the elements in the
observation scheme did not led to problems during the observation, and therefore no alterations to it
were made.
The interview structure was also not changed based on the pilot, since it provided sufficient
structure to cover certain elements, but at the same time let the teacher venture his own experiences with
and visions on the material. Also, it gave the teacher space to raise related thoughts which were not
anticipated on in advance by the researcher. Since no changes were made to either instrument, the results
obtained through the observations and interview with the teacher that was involved in the pilot were
included in the study.
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3.6 Data analysis
The evaluation of the material under review was done guided by the three research questions. In order to
answer these questions, the retrieved data had to be analysed. In the following section, the methods for
these analyses will be elaborated on.
Analysing the material for answering the first research question
The first research question was answered based on the literature on problem solving, as was described in
Chapter 2. First, the material for both physics and geography was described, and subsequently, based on
the literature, it was examined to what extent this material contained the skill probem solving as a 21st
century skill. This focused both on the degree to which the problem to be solved was ill-structured (i.e.
where on the “continuum” for problems, ranging from decontextualised problems with one solution to
context-specific problems with multiple solutions as proposed by Jonassen (1997) one could position the
problem), and the degree to which the steps of the ill-structured problem solving process were part of the
material.
Observational data for answering the second research question
Data obtained through the observations were meant to answer the second research question and were
mostly qualitative in nature. For each participant, an overview was made of the presence (or not) of a
(sub)step in the observed lesson(s). The overviews of all teachers of one subject were afterwards
combined in one figure, thus providing a visual overview of all observed geography and physics lessons.
Subsequently, the notes for all observed lessons were compared and summarised per step, so that the
outcomes in the two figures could be further explained, giving a complete overview of how the steps in
the problem solving process were represented in the observed lessons.
Interview data for answering the third research question
Data retrieved from the interviews were meant to answer the third research question, and were strictly
qualitative in nature. Attride-Stirling (2001) stresses the importance of analysing qualitative data in a
methodical way if produced results are to be both useful and meaningful. According to Attride-Stirling
(2001) thematic networks is a tool that helps to organise and structure text, so that a thematic analysis
can be performed, and underlying themes and structures can be procured. Such networks comprise three
levels, which become increasingly abstract: basic themes, organising themes, and global themes. These
levels are represented in a network, thus giving an overview of a theme derived from the text (Attride-
Stirling, 2001). Although there are also other methods to analyse qualitative data in a methodical manner,
the thematic networks method was chosen in this study since the interview scheme was semi-structured,
and the thematic network method provided a way to structure the obtained data.
To create such thematic networks, the interviews were recorded so that of each interview a
verbatim transcript could be made. This could in turn be analysed in order to interpret the results yielded
through the interviews. In the analysis process, the interview transcripts were read and meaningful
segments were coded, i.e. a little summary for that piece of interview data was given. After doing this for
all interview transcripts, based on the codes a short summary (of one or two pages maximum) was made
for each transcript, in which the most important aspects were listed. Elements were regarded as being
important when a teacher had spoken of these elements multiple times, had said relatively much about
them, or placed emphasis on them. The summaries of the transcripts thus provided an overview per
interview of the most important elements that emerged during the interviews with the teachers on how
they perceived the material that aimed to support teachers with teaching the 21st century skill problem
solving.
23
All summaries of the transcripts were placed next to each other, and read multiple times in order
to get familiar with the most important elements that came forth in the interviews. Also, elements in the
summaries were printed on little cards, so that they could be physically shuffled and (re)grouped based
on similarities or overlapping content. By making the summaries and shuffling the printed cards, it was
aimed to discover overarching themes and structures in the data. Based on the shuffling with the elements
and (re)reading the interview summaries, basic themes and subsequently patters in those basic themes
(i.e. the organising themes) could be determined. Grouping of these organising themes eventually led to
two global themes, which together with the corresponding organising and basic themes constituted the
first versions of the thematic networks, through which the interview data can be structured and visually
represented. Several weeks later, the entire interview transcripts were read again, this time with the
previously constructed thematic networks next to it, in order to see whether indeed all important
elements were covered in the networks or whether adaptations should be made to the content or the
wording in the networks. Based on this final analysis, some changes were made, which led to the final
thematic networks.
In Chapter 6, the content of these networks and how they originated based on the content of the
interviews are clarified. Appendix F, ‘Pictures of stages in the analysis process’, provides a visual insight in
how the analysis process (as described above) that led to these networks occurred.
Since the observations and the interviews in this study yielded (mostly) qualitative data, interpretation of
the researcher is a major part during analysing the data and, with the interviews, constructing the thematic
networks. The analysis performed for this research was therefore subjective to quite some extent, no
matter how methodical it was performed. According to Attride-Stirling (2001) objectivity is not always the
fundamental aim of qualitative research, since it is viewed that meaning and deep understanding of a
phenomenon can be understood only in its social context (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Therefore, analysing the
data in the way described above was suitable for the goals of this research, which focused on the specific
context of teachers who have worked with material under review.
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4. Results of the evaluation based on the literature
The material under review was evaluated using three sources. In this chapter, the evaluation of the
material based on the literature is reported. First, the content of the material is described, and
subsequently it is reported to what extent the skill problem solving as a 21st century skill is actually present
in the material. This is determined both on the degree to which the problem resembles an ill-structured
problem and on whether the steps in the process for solving ill-structured problems are present in the
material.
4.1 Elements to consider when analysing the material
As came forward in the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2, problems are not strictly distributed
into strictly separate classifications for well- or ill-structured problems, but rather lie on a continuum
(Jonassen 1997). There are however characteristics that are more associated with either well- or ill-
structured problems. Very well-structured problems are decontextualised and have a single, correct
solution. Very ill-structured problems on the other hand are context specific, and have multiple possible
solutions (Jonassen, 1997). With this in mind, it is possible to determine the degree to which a certain
problem is more a well-structured or an ill-structured problem. It was also determined in Chapter 2 that
for problem solving in education in order to prepare students for the more complex 21st century world, it
would be best to expose students to ill-structured problems in school. This will help them in attaining
transferable skills necessary for complex, real-life problem solving. Therefore, to teach problem solving in
21st century education, problems to be solved should be more ill-structured than well-structured.
Consequently, when analysing the material it was examined to which extent the problem in the material
reflected an ill-structured problem.
For the process of solving an ill-structured problem, Jonassen (1997) distinguished seven steps,
which have been elucidated in Chapter 2. These steps show great resemblance to the process for problem
solving taken into account during the development of the material under review. Since this chapter is
aimed at analysing the material based on the literature, the steps as articulated by Jonassen (1997) are
taken into account when evaluating the extent to which the process for ill-structured problem solving is
present in the material. In the next chapter, when the data retrieved from observing the lessons are
analysed, the process of problem solving as used during the development of the material is taken into
account, since that formed the basis for how the material was composed, of which the enactment was
observed.
4.2 Geography material
As was described in Chapter 3, in the geography material the students are assigned with the fictional task
to identify a suitable location for a new playground in their area. Below, the lesson activities and the
rationale behind this lesson is specified. Subsequently, it is reported how ill-structured the problem in the
material is and to what extent the steps of the problem solving process are present in the material.
Lesson activities
In the first lesson, the teacher has to explain the problem the local council has noticed, and the task that
the students have (fictionally) received from them. In their first assignment, the students must determine
what elements have to be taken into account when choosing a location and a layout for the new
playground. They should first ponder on this by themselves, and subsequently discuss it with a peer.
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Afterwards, this is also discussed with the whole class. In the second assignment, which is a homework
assignment to be finished before the second lesson, the students have to determine a possible location
individually based on the elements that they have identified in assignment 1, and mark this location on a
map.
In the second lesson, the students are arranged in small groups (two to three students) that ideally
live in the same neighbourhood. In these small groups, the students have to share the locations that they
have picked individually, and exchange the arguments that underpin their decision for the chosen location.
Through discussing these different options, they must conclusively choose a location for the playground
together, and determine the layout of it. When they have chosen the location and the layout, they have
to draw this on a map, thereby also considering the elements which should be present in a map (such as a
title and scale). Besides this map, they need to write on an additional paper the layout they have chosen
for the playground, and their arguments for why their chosen location is the most suitable one for the
playground.
In the third lesson, the maps of the different groups are discussed with the whole class, and groups
may be asked to explain their map and the choices they have made. This class-discussion is aimed at
evaluating how each group has considered the elements identified in the first assignment for their final
choice for a location, what the students thought of this assignment, what they have learned, whether
collaboration in the groups went well, and what they would or should alter when doing a similar
assignment in future.
Rationale
Through this material, it is aimed by the developers of the material that students are exposed to a
recognisable, concrete problem that is situated in the own environment of the students. It is stated in the
material that such an assignment contributes to meaningful geography education. It is aimed to teach
students to pose questions and attain an expository attitude. This will help them identify and support
different perspectives based on ample information, and to make decisions based on arguments. Through
the lessons, students will learn to explore the problem, by considering which actors are important, what
interests play a role, and what environmental characteristics should be taken into account. It is emphasised
in the material that students should take sufficient time to explore the problem before they start to think
about possible solutions. It is stated that this is essential in order to make a well-thought out and sensible
decision. When students experience difficulties in devising such criteria, the teacher is advised to give hints
to these students. Through the exploration, criteria are determined which form the basis for decisions
taken later in the process. Also in the discussion at the end with the whole class, these criteria should be
reflected on.
Problem solving as a 21st century skill in the geography material
The problem posed for the students in the geography material is situated in a specific context, namely the
own environment of the students. This environment has certain characteristics that have to be taken into
account when considering possible solutions. In the process of solving the problem, the students therefore
have to analyse this context and what it means for the problem, in order to find an appropriate solution.
Also, there is not one possible, correct solution. Since there are multiple stakeholders, which all
view the problem and optimal situation from their own perspective, these stakeholders may all deem
different locations and layouts for the playground a good and acceptable solution. There are thus multiple
locations and layouts of the playground that could solve the problem the council has recognised. The
reasoning and arguments given for the chosen location and layout determine whether the solution is
appropriate.
