9673_Challenges faced by teachers when teaching learners with developmental disability

I

Challenges faced by teachers when
teaching learners with developmental
disability

Humphrey Alexander UDOBA

Master’s Thesis
Master of Philosophy in Special Needs Education
Department of Special Needs Education
Faculty of Educational Sciences

UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

Autumn 2014

II

Challenges faced by teachers when teaching
learners with developmental disability.

By Humphrey Alexander UDOBA

Master’s Thesis
Master of Philosophy in Special Needs Education
Department of Special Needs Education
Faculty of Educational Sciences

UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

Autumn 2014

III

© Humphrey Alexander Udoba
2014
Challenges face by teachers when teaching learners with developmental disability

Humphrey Alexander Udoba
http://www.duo.uio.no/
Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo

IV

Dedication
I dedicate this master thesis to my lovely wife, Jacqueline Manswet Msofe, my son Brian
Humphrey. I really appreciate for their love and support they gave me during the whole
period that I have been busy writing this thesis.

V

Summary
Since the early 1990s the movement to have education for all was launched at the World
Conference that involved various international organizations such as UNESCO, UNDP,
UNFPA, UNICEF and the World Bank. The main agenda for this conference was Education
for All in the entire world. In Tanzania the aspect of education for all is not effectively
implemented despite of having policies and legal framework that advocate education for all.
The education should enhance teachers who teach children with developmental disability and
also create awareness in the society to accept children with special educational needs.
However, children with developmental disability need extra attention in terms of curriculum
adaptation, teaching methods, and availability of teaching and learning materials, assistive
technology, assessment systems, as well as resources and funds for more assistance in
adapting the school environment.
This study addressed the issue of children with developmental disability by examining the
challenges faced by teachers who teach children with developmental disability and how they
try to overcome these challenges. Local teachers in most of the primary schools in Tanzania
lack training in special needs education for children with developmental disability. Despite
the “Primary Education Development Plan” (PEDP), that ensure education for all, the overall
quality of primary education in Tanzania remains generally poor for children with
developmental disability. The shortages of teachers trained on special- educational needs-
professionals, as well as the lack of teaching facilities, have a negative effect on the delivery
of quality education to children with developmental disability. In many schools, class sizes
are too big for teachers to facilitate quality learning.
The general purpose of this study is to find out what challenges teachers face when teaching
children with developmental disability. Very few studies on children with developmental
disability have been conducted in Tanzania. Most of these few studies focused on secondary
school level. Therefore there is a need to conduct such studies at the primary school level.
The empirical investigation is guided by the following objectives:
1. To see Teachers’ understanding of developmental disability.
2. To find out the approach and methods of teaching used by teachers when teaching
children with developmental disability.
VI

3. To see if there are common activities between a unit for children with special
educational needs and ordinary classes.
4. To find out to what extent the parents of children with developmental disability
collaborate with special needs education teachers.

The main research question for this master thesis is: What challenges do teachers face when
teaching children with developmental disability and how do they overcome them?
The study has interviewed and observed four special needs education teachers who teach in
two primary schools with a unit for children with special education needs. The study covered
three classes. Two parents were interviewed.
The study revealed challenges that are quite universal for teaching learners with
developmental disability. Teachers in this study expressed the need for reduced class sizes,
modern teaching materials, motivations to teachers, and additional support services from the
government. Most teachers teaching children with developmental disability did not receive
any special needs education training from the university, they feel that they are not qualified
to teach the children with developmental disability. This study revealed that the classrooms
for children with developmental disability in Tanzania at large have poor learning
environment to support the learners with developmental disability.
The study reveals that collaboration between special needs education teachers and parents for
children with developmental disability is necessary for the wellbeing of their children.
Although the results of this study focused on Tanzania, the suggestions may be useful for
other developing countries.
In order to improve the poor learning environment for special needs educational for children
with developmental disability, the following aspects are recommended.
 Specialized training facilities
 Resources; both human and materials
 Special needs education teachers

Future research in this area should involve systematic, long-term development work across a
range of sites and settings, which also allows for the examination of the impact of the
innovations upon achievement. Such research is necessary if we are to advance knowledge
about teaching and learning to understand how combinations of teaching approach.
VII

Preface
This work has been performed at Master of Philosophy in Special Needs Education
Department, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Oslo. To evaluate the
method to be used a pilot study was performed in Oslo. Since my origin is Tanzania I
decided to do the study in Tanzania. The data collection in Tanzania was performed
during August 2013.
Challenges faced by teachers when teaching learners with developmental disability is
the topic for this thesis. However, learners are in this study constrict to children at
primary school.

This research paper is made possible through the help and support from many people,
including: my mother, teachers, family, and friends. Allow me to dedicate my
acknowledgment of gratitude toward the following significant contributors: First and
foremost, special thanks should go to my advisor, Miriam Skjørten for her tireless
supervision she provided to me since the preparation of the proposal to the production
of the final report of this thesis. Second, I would like to thank Helge Skjetne for his
variable financial support in many ways that I cannot even explain. Thanks to Karen
Bibow for helping with the layout of the document. Finally, I sincerely acknowledge
also the University of Oslo (UIO) and its Professors for the academic support and
consultancy they have provided to me all the time as a student and fellow students who
provide the advice. The product of this research paper would not be possible without all
of them.
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Acronyms
CRC – Conventions on the Right of the Child
EFA- Education for All
EPSEN- Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs
MOEC- Ministry of Education
MoEVT- Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
NSGRP- National Strategy on economic Growth and Reduction of Poverty
NGOs – Non Governmental Organizations
NCSE – National Council of Special Education
PEDP – Primary Education Development Program
SNE- Special Needs Education
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations
URT- United Republic of Tanzania
UN – United Nations
UDHR – The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UNICEF – United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UNDP – United Nations Development Programme
UNFPA – United Nations Fund for Population Activities
WHO – World Health Organisation
WCPT – World Confederation of Physical Therapy
ZPD – Zone of Proximal Development
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Table of contents
1
INRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
……………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.2
PURPOSE, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
……………………………………………. 2
1.3
RESEARCH QUESTIONS …………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.4
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
………………………………………………………………………………. 3
1.4.1
Impairment
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.4.2
Disability
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
1.4.3
Special needs education ……………………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4.4
Inclusive education ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.5
OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.1
INTERNATIONAL DECLARATIONS ……………………………………………………………………… 6
2.1.1
The universal declaration of human rights
…………………………………………………………… 6
2.1.2
The convention on the rights of the child ……………………………………………………………. 6
2.1.3
Education for all
………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
2.1.4
The UN standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for persons with
disabilities ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
2.2
REVIEW OF TANZANIA’S NATIONAL POLICIES ON SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION ………. 8
2.2.1
The constitution of the united republic of Tanzania ……………………………………………… 8
2.2.2
Universal primary education in Tanzania ……………………………………………………………. 8
2.2.3
National strategy for growth and reduction of poverty
………………………………………….. 9
2.2.4
Primary education development program
……………………………………………………………. 9
2.2.5
Tanzania persons with disability act …………………………………………………………………… 9
2.3
SOME INFORMATION ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION IN TANZANIA
………………. 10
2.4
DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY ………………………………………………………………………… 11
2.4.1
Causes of developmental disability…………………………………………………………………… 11
2.5
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT AND MEDIATION ……………………………………….. 12
3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………………….. 14
3.1
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ………………………………………………………………….. 14
3.2
RESEARCH DESIGN ………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
3.3
SAMPLING AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
……………………………………………………………. 15
3.3.1
The target group …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
3.3.2
Criteria for choosing the schools ……………………………………………………………………… 15
3.3.3
Criteria for choosing the informants …………………………………………………………………. 16
3.3.4
Sampling process …………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
3.4
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ……………………………………………………………………. 16
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3.4.1
Semi-structured interview ……………………………………………………………………………….. 17
3.4.2
Observations …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
3.4.3
Informal talks with the parents ………………………………………………………………………… 19
3.5
PILOT STUDY
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
3.6
DATA ANALYSIS …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
3.7
ENSURING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA ………………………………………………. 21
3.7.1
Validity and reliability ……………………………………………………………………………………. 21
3.7.2
Securing validity and reliability
……………………………………………………………………….. 22
3.8
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
………………………………………………………………………………. 22
3.9
LIMITATIONS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
………………………………………………………………………………. 25
4.1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT THE TEACHERS
………………………………………… 26
4.1.1
Teacher A1 – school A …………………………………………………………………………………… 26
4.1.2
Teacher A2 – school A …………………………………………………………………………………… 26
4.1.3
Teacher B1 – school B
…………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
4.1.4
Teacher B2 – school B
…………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
4.2
TEACHERS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY
………………………….. 27
4.2.1
Teacher A1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
4.2.2
Teacher A2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
4.2.3
Teacher B1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
4.2.4
Teacher B2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
4.3
TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS USED BY TEACHERS ……………………………… 28
4.3.1
Teacher A1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
4.3.2
Teacher A2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
4.3.3
Teacher B1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
4.3.4
Teacher B2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
4.4
CHALLENGES FACED BY THE TEACHERS ………………………………………………………….. 30
4.4.1
Teacher A1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
4.4.2
Teacher A2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33
4.4.3
Teacher B1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
4.4.4
Teacher B2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
4.5
MEANS USED BY TEACHERS TO OVERCOME CHALLENGES
………………………………….. 40
4.5.1
Teacher A1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40
4.5.2
Teacher A2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
4.5.3
Teacher B1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
4.5.4
Teacher B2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
4.6
SHARED ACTIVITIES BETWEEN THE UNIT FOR CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL
DISABILITY AND THE ORDINARY SCHOOL …………………………………………………………. 43
4.6.1
Collaboration between special needs teachers and regular teacher ……………………….. 43
4.6.2
Shared activities between learners with special educational needs and ordinary
students ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45
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4.7
COLLABORATION BETWEEN PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL
DISABILITY AND THEIR TEACHERS …………………………………………………………………… 46
4.8
ADDITIONAL OPINIONS GIVEN BY THE TEACHERS ……………………………………………… 47
4.9
FINDINGS FROM INFORMAL OBSERVATIONS
……………………………………………………… 49
4.9.1
Informal observation at school A
……………………………………………………………………… 49
4.9.2
Informal observation at school B
……………………………………………………………………… 49
4.10
INFORMAL OBSERVATION DURING BREAK TIME
………………………………………………… 51
4.11
INTERVIEW FINDINGS FROM PARENTS ……………………………………………………………… 51
4.11.1 Parent 1 from school A …………………………………………………………………………………… 51
4.11.2 Parent 2 from school B …………………………………………………………………………………… 52
5
DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
5.1
CHALLENGES OBSERVED
………………………………………………………………………………… 54
5.1.1
Lack of teaching materials ………………………………………………………………………………. 54
5.1.2
Lack of special needs teachers …………………………………………………………………………. 55
5.1.3
Lack of classrooms and poor learning environments…………………………………………… 56
5.1.4
Acceptance in the society
………………………………………………………………………………… 56
5.1.5
Motivation and poor salary ……………………………………………………………………………… 57
5.2
HOW TEACHERS OVERCOME SOME OF THE CHALLENGES………………………………….. 58
5.3
TEACHERS UNDERSTANDING OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY ………………………….. 59
5.4
METHODS AND APPROACHES USED BY THE TEACHERS ………………………………………. 60
5.5
SHARED ACTIVITIES BETWEEN A UNIT FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL
NEEDS AND ORDINARY CLASSES ………………………………………………………………………. 61
5.6
COLLABORATION BETWEEN PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL
DISABILITY AND SPECIAL NEEDS TEACHERS ……………………………………………………… 61
5.7
INFORMAL TALKS WITH THE PARENTS …………………………………………………………….. 62
6
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 63
7
RECOMENDATION ……………………………………………………………………………………. 64
7.1
SPECIALIZED TRAINING FACILITIES
…………………………………………………………………. 64
7.2
RESOURCES
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 64
7.3
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION TEACHERS
……………………………………………………………. 65
7.4
FURTHER RESEARCH ……………………………………………………………………………………… 65
8
REFERENCES
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66
9
APPENDIXES ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 71

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1

1 INRODUCTION
This chapter gives background information about the study. It also points out the purpose,
objectives, and research questions. Furthermore, explanation of relevant terms is presented
later in the chapter and finally the organization of the thesis is given.
In this thesis Special needs children and Children with special educational needs is equivalent
to Children with developmental disability. Learners are in this study constrict to children at
primary school.
1.1 Background of the study
Since the early 1990s the movement to have education for all was launched at the World
Conference that involved various international organizations such as UNESCO, UNDP,
UNFPA, UNICEF and the World Bank. The main agenda for this conference was Education
for All in the entire world.
However, inclusive education is currently a topical subject that is widely discussed and
debated upon in the field of education, Tanzania included. It has invariably been referred to as
part of the global education for all agenda as a new education paradigm and as an educational
reform goals to make our societies inclusive. The same is accepted in Tanzania; however the
aspect of education for all is not effectively implemented despite of having policies and legal
framework that advocate education for all.
The education should enhance teachers who teach children with developmental disability and
also create awareness in the society to accept children with special educational needs.
Therefore there is a need to introduce comprehensive special needs education in all teacher-
professional development-programs.
However, children with developmental disability need extra attention in terms of curriculum
adaptation, teaching methods, and availability of teaching and learning materials, assistive
technology, assessment systems, as well as resources and funds for more assistance in
adapting the school environment.
This study addressed the issue of children with developmental disability by examining the
challenges faced by teachers who teach children with developmental disability and how they

2

try to overcome these challenges. There have been many problems in teaching children with
developmental disability in Tanzania. Local teachers in most of the primary schools in
Tanzania lack training in special needs education for children with developmental disability.
Despite the “Primary Education Development Plan” (PEDP), that ensure education for all, the
overall quality of primary education in Tanzania remains generally poor particularly in
schools for children with developmental disability.
Many primary schools in Tanzania suffer from a shortage of teachers. The situation is worse
in those schools that have special needs units. These schools have lack of trained teachers in
the field of special needs education. The shortages of teachers trained on special- educational
needs-professionals, as well as the lack of teaching facilities, have a negative effect on the
delivery of quality education to children with developmental disability. In many schools, class
sizes are too big for teachers to facilitate quality learning.
Tanzania is one of the countries which adapted the Dakar Framework which re-affirmed their
commitment to achieving Education for All by the year 2015 regarding the world declaration
of Education for All (EFA) that was held in Dakar, Senegal from 26th to 28th of April
2000.Children with developmental disability deserve attention in many aspects because they
are suffering from limited access to information and they suffer from social stigmatization.
Directly or indirectly, these factors reduce the chances of accessing social services, addressing
the educational needs, need of economic growth and poverty reduction efforts (URT, 2005).
Tanzania has had many setbacks in helping children with disabilities, one of them being lack
of qualified Special Needs Education teachers who have knowledge and appropriate
methodology on teaching children with disabilities.
1.2 Purpose, Objectives and Research questions
The general purpose of this study is to find out what challenges teachers face when teaching
children with developmental disabilities. Very few studies on children with developmental
disability have been conducted in Tanzania. Most of these few studies focused on secondary
school level. Therefore there is a need to conduct such studies at the primary school level.
The empirical investigation is guided by the following objectives:
1. To see Teachers’ understanding of developmental disability.

3

2. To find out the approach and methods of teaching used by teachers when teaching
children with developmental disability.
3. To see if there are common activities between a unit for children with special
educational needs and ordinary classes.
4. To find out to what extent the parents of children with developmental disability
collaborate with special needs education teachers.
The study is guided by the research questions listed in part 1.3.
1.3 Research questions
The main research question for this master thesis is:
What challenges do teachers face when teaching children with developmental
disability and how do they overcome them?
The following sub questions are raised:
a. What is the teacher’s understanding of developmental disability?
b. What approach and methods of teaching do the teachers use to teach children with
developmental disability learn?
c. Are there any common activities between the unit for children with developmental
disability and the ordinary school classes?
1.4 Definition of key terms
1.4.1 Impairment
Impairment is a partial or complete loss of functions of a body part, an organ, a sensory
function, and/or brain functions. The loss can be temporary or permanent. Impairments may
affect sensory functions (among other hearing and vision, touch), mental functions (memory,
consciousness, and cognitive abilities) and/or physical/bodily functions of the limbs or
internal organs. Impairment can influence interaction, communication, movement, and/or
learning processes and general behaviour in children (and adults), based on (WHO, 1980).

4

1.4.2 Disability
Disability is a restriction or an inability to perform an activity in the manner or within the
range considered normal for a human being, mostly resulting from impairment (Barbotte,
Guillemin, Chau, & Lordhandicap Group, 2001). It is important to emphasize that activities
and roles that a society considers to be “normal,” depend on age, sex, as well as a number of
social and cultural factors.
UN Convection on the Right of Persons with Disabilities explains a person with disability by
including:
Those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which
in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in
society on an equal basis with others. (UN, 2008. Article 1).
1.4.3 Special needs education
The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs (EPSEN) Act was passed in
Dublin by the Government into law in July 2004. Special educational needs are defined in this
act as:
A restriction in the capacity of the person to participate in and benefit from education
on account of an enduring physical, sensory, mental health or learning disability, or
any other condition which results in a person learning differently from a person
without that condition (NCSE, 2014).
Children with special educational needs are children with a variety of different disability such
as health and mental health conditions that require special intervention, services, or support.
Parenting a child with special needs can be particularly challenging (Kirk, Gallagher,
Coleman, & Anastasiow, 2009).
1.4.4 Inclusive education
UNESCO (2009) elaborates on what an inclusive education system should be in the following
statement:
An ‘inclusive’ education system can only be created if ordinary schools become more
inclusive – in other words, if they become better at educating all children in their
communities. The Conference proclaimed that: ‘regular schools with [an]inclusive

5

orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes,
creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving
education for all; moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of
children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire
education system’ (UNESCO, 2009).
Mmbaga (2002) argues that Inclusive Education needs to be part of the whole school equal
opportunity policy; in this case children with learning difficulties, girls’ and boys’ learning
needs would be incorporated into the curriculum and the school-learning environment.
1.5 Outline of the thesis
This thesis is made up of seven chapters which consist of the Introduction, Theoretical
Framework, Research Methodology, Research Findings, Discussion, Conclusion and
Recommendations.
Chapter One is the introduction, which includes the background and the purpose of the study;
objectives of the research and the research questions. Chapter Two presents the theoretical
frame work. Chapter Three describes the methodology and different procedures the study
took during data collection. In this chapter, the research design and methods of data collection
(interview and observation) are discussed including sampling techniques, data analysis,
validity and reliability. This chapter ends with ethical considerations in this study. In chapter
Four the study results are presented. In chapter Five the study results are discussed.
Chapter six is giving a conclusion based on the findings and the discussion. In chapter seven
recommendations for further work is outlined.

6

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter present various literature reviews that are related to the study. Since the main
purpose for this study was to reveal the challenges faced by teachers when teaching children
with developmental disability and how do they try to overcome these challenges. The chapter
starts by reviewing the international and national declarations, policies and acts about learners
with special educational needs, then some information about special needs education in
Tanzania, followed by developmental disability and finally concluding with Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and Mediation concepts by Vygotsky and other scholars.
2.1 International declarations
Tanzania being a member of the International Community follows various UN conventions,
e.g. the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1949), The Convention on the rights of the
Child (CRC) 1989, Education for All EFA 1990, the UN Standard Rules on the Equalization
of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (1993), and the Salamanca Statement and
Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (1994).
2.1.1 The universal declaration of human rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history
of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds
from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General
Assembly in Paris on 10th of December 1948 as a common standard of achievements for all
peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be
universally protected (www.ohchr.org), accessed on 5/7/2014
2.1.2 The convention on the rights of the child
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is the most ratified of all the United
Nations Human Rights treaties. The treaty recognizes the importance of international co-
operation for improving the living conditions of children in every country, in particular in the
developing countries. The treaty affirms and describes the fundamental human rights of all
children (all human beings below the age of 18), and the governments that have ratified it

7

have legally agreed to fulfil its provisions. This includes the rights for education for all
children. The CRC forms the most comprehensive and well-established international standard
for children’s rights and provides the framework for the actions of UNICEF, the UN children’s
agency (www.canadiancrc.com), accessed on 10/10/2014.
2.1.3 Education for all
In 1990, delegates from 155 countries, as well as representatives from some 150
governmental and non-governmental organizations, agreed at the World Conference on
Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand (5th – 9th of March 1990) to make primary education
accessible to all children and to massively reduce illiteracy before the end of the decade.
In June 1994 UNESCO summoned the world nations to meet in Salamanca in Spain to further
the objective of Education for All. The main focus was to enhance inclusive education by
enabling all children, those with Special Educational Needs in particular to access schools
(World Bank 2000).
To continually take further the cause of Education for All, world nations met again in Dakar
Senegal in the year 2000. In this forum nations had the opportunity to assess the
achievements, lessons and failures encountered. One of the resolutions in Dakar was to ensure
all children, with emphasis to the marginalized children like those with special educational
needs, to have access to and complete a primary education of good quality by 2015
(UNESCO, 2000).
2.1.4 The UN standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for
persons with disabilities
Among the major outcomes of the Decade of Disabled Persons was the adoption, by the
General Assembly, of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons
with Disabilities in 1993. Although not a legally binding instrument, the Standard Rules
represent a strong moral and political commitment of Governments to take action to attain
equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities. The rules serve as an instrument for
policy-making and as a basis for technical and economic cooperation. The Standard Rules on
the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities hold that in situations where
the general education system does not adequately meet the needs of all people with
disabilities, Special Education may then be considered as a solution. The quality of such

8

education should reflect the same standards, goals and ambitions of a general education and
should be closely linked to it (WCPT, 2011).
2.2 Review of Tanzania’s national policies on special
needs education
Policy documents are very essential as they provide a reflection of a government’s decision
making process, hold governments accountable for services delivered, shape societal view
points and actions and record a society’s progress and change over time. Having a policy in
special needs education is a significant milestone towards achieving various global initiatives
to ensure equal education opportunities to people with special needs.
Tanzania has adopted, and to some extent, implemented a number of laws, policies and
documents pertaining to people with special needs. The following are highlighted: These are
The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, Universal Primary Education in
Tanzania (UPE), National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), Primary
Education Development Program (PEDP), and Tanzania Persons with Disability Act 2010.
2.2.1 The constitution of the united republic of Tanzania
The 1977 Tanzanian Constitution with its amendments stresses the equality and equity of all
citizens. For instance, part 3 explains that every person is entitled to recognition and respect
for his dignity, and all persons are equal before the law and are entitled to protection without
any discrimination and with equality before the law. The constitution prohibits discrimination
against people with special needs.
2.2.2 Universal primary education in Tanzania
The Universal Primary Education Policy of 1974 (UPE) emphasizes the right of all Tanzanian
children to a free primary education. Schools were built in almost every village resulting in
high enrolment in primary schools. This remark abled the literacy rates to reach 98% by the
mid 1980’s. In relation to Special Needs Education, the Universal Primary Education
initiative addressed it in a general manner by the means of including learners with special
needs in the general statements such as the right to education to every child of school age 7 to
12 years.

9

2.2.3 National strategy for growth and reduction of poverty
The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) demonstrates a
remarkable policy change towards the inclusion of persons with disability in the society, and
towards the improvement of services. Targets related to vulnerable groups in general, and the
persons with disability in particular, are included under most subsets of the strategy, and
especially under the improvement of the quality of life and social well-being. The primary
enrolment goal was to increase the proportion of children with disability enrolled in,
attending, and completing schools from 0.1 % in 2000 to 20 % in 2010. Principally, the policy
aims at reducing inequalities across various categories (URT, 2005).
2.2.4 Primary education development program
Primary Education Development Program (PEDP) is a comprehensive plan for the
development of primary education in Tanzania from 2002-2006. According to the review of
PEDP, it has resulted in significant changes in the lives of thousands of children, parents and
teachers across Tanzania. PEDP has been a powerful tool in developing different sectors of
primary education (access to education, quality of education, capacity building, financing and
governance) in the country. However, PEDP has not had any significant impact on the
educational situation of children with disability and other barriers to learning. A reason for
this is that disability issues (as well as issues related to non-formal education) have had a low
priority in the overall development plan.
2.2.5 Tanzania persons with disability act
Tanzania Persons with Disability Act 2010 is a law enacted by Parliament in April 2010 and
was assented by the President of the United Republic of Tanzania on 20th of May 2010. The
Act makes provisions for health care, social support, accessibility, rehabilitation, education
and vocational training, communication, employment or work protection, and the promotion
of basic rights for persons with disabilities. In terms of education, the act prohibits
discrimination of any kind in the provision of education at all levels. The law stipulates that,
Persons with disabilities of all ages and gender shall have the same rights to education,
training in inclusive settings. (Tanzania Human Rights Report 2010).

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2.3 Some information about special needs education in
Tanzania
Tanzania is among the countries with a high number of persons with disabilities in Africa.
The Tanzania human rights report indicates that there are more than 3 million persons with
disabilities in the country, which accounts for approximately 9 % of the entire population. The
challenges faced by persons with disabilities are lack of equal employment opportunities,
stigmatization from families and society at large, inability to obtain training or skills,
improper health facilities and an unequal access to education. The level of illiteracy among
person with disabilities is very high: 47.6 % compared to the rest of the population at 25.3 %
Previously, before independence, special needs education in Tanzania was largely a practice
by religious organizations (URT, 2008). The Anglican Church in 1950 established the first
school for children with visual impairment. Later followed by that of the Roman Catholic
Church in 1963 when they started a school for children with hearing impairment (Danda,
2009). After independence the government put much effort to educate its citizens.
Immediately after independence there was no specific policy to deal with special needs
education. Their question was enshrined in the general documents that were meant to deal
with the general population (Tungaraza, 1994., Aldersey and Turnbull, 2011). For example
the constitution, with its various amendments, delineate that all human beings are equal and
are entitled to equal rights. It further prohibits discrimination against people with special
needs (URT 2000). However, as time passed the trend tends to be accelerating towards more
specific documents
In 2004, for the first time in the history, Tanzania issued the National Policy on Disability.
The Policy emphasizes basic education for all children and that priority is to be given to those
with special needs. It further acknowledged the deplorable conditions that prevail in Special
Needs Education and others services for people with special needs.
Some of problems facing Special Needs Education are a lack of enough Special Needs
Education teachers. Kapinga (2012) argues that this problem is caused by the Government’s
lenient measure to train them. He also points out that even though the Tanzania Primary
Education Development Program held from 2002 to 2006 changed many aspects in primary
education, it still ignored the question of special needs education teachers.

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2.4 Developmental disability
The term developmental disability was essentially created by the 91st United States Congress
in 1970 (Parette & Peterson, 2008). Before developmental disability there was many terms
used, which are no longer used today. For this study the term Developmental Disability will
be used.
Developmental Disability is also referred to as Intellectual Disability. The American
Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) uses the following
definition:
Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual
functioning and in adaptive behaviour, which covers many everyday social and practical
skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. (hdp://www.aaidd.org, accessed
20.6.2014). Developmental disability reflects the fit between the capabilities of individual and
the structure and expectations of their environments.
2.4.1 Causes of developmental disability
Developmental disability is caused by many different kinds of trauma to the developing brain
and nervous system. In many cases it is difficult to pinpoint the exact cause of the damage or
time when it occurred. Thus according to http://www.altaregional.org (accessed 4.7.2014), the
possible causes of developmental disability:
 Brain injury or infection before, during or after birth.
 Growth or nutrition problems.
 Abnormalities of chromosomes and genes.
 Babies born long before the expected birth date – also called extreme
prematurity.
 Poor diet and health care.
 Drug misuse during pregnancy, including excessive alcohol intake and
smoking.
 Child abuse can also have a severe effect on the development of a child,
specifically the socio-emotional development.

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2.5 Zone of proximal development and mediation
The Zone of proximal development (ZPD) concept used by Vygosky appeared to focus more
on the type of interaction that involve schooling and academic learning. His perspective
seems to insist on the ideal role of the teacher in providing scaffolding as a means to assists
learners on tasks within their zone of proximal development. When a learner cannot
accomplish a given task but that task is within the learner’s ZPD, using the right tools and
appropriate assistance the learner may be able to accomplish the task. This assistance is also
known as scaffolding. Scaffolding is a temporary support that parents or teachers can give to a
child to assist him/her to accomplish the task. After mastering the task, scaffolding will be
gradually removed and the learner will be able to complete the task on his/her own.
(Vygotsky, 1978; Papalia. et al, 1998).
According to Brown, et al. (1993. p.191) ZPD can include people, adults and children,
with various degrees of expertise, but can also include artefacts such as books, videos,
wall displays, scientific equipment, and a computer environment intended to support
intentional learning.
Beside Vygotsky (1978) believing that human development is a result of interaction between
people and their environment, he also added that these interactions are not limited to people
only but also to mediation tools or artefacts, such as language and teaching material (various
signs, and symbols.
According to Feuerstein & Rand (1974), a Child cognitive development can be modified
through the help of mediation. According Wertsch (2007), mediation is Vygotsky central
theme in his most writings. Mediation relates to important people in the learners lives
(Vygotsky,1978). They are people who can select, organise and present the information and/or
tasks they consider to be most appropriate for the child and bring the child a step further.
(Gage and Berliner, 1998; Papalia. et al, 1998).
Daniels, (2007) and Thompson, (2012a & b), point out some of various forms of mediation
that effect progress within a ZPD as follows:
1. Direct instruction from a teacher or more capable peer. While initially didactic, the
instructive voice can be internalized by the learner as part of his or her own inner
speech.
2. Modelling of a behaviour or task by an expert that the learner initially imitates and
ultimately internalizes and appropriates.
3. Feedback, either oral or written, that offers guidance on performance.

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4. Questioning to assess or assist performance.
5. Reassurance and reinforcement of partially understood concepts.
6. Redirection or recursion through the learning process.
7. Joint exploration of meaning between teacher and pupils.
8. Peer collaboration involving critical thinking, problem-solving, or making decisions
9. Scaffolding of a task, or of part of a task, by the teacher in order to provide a
constructive framework for the learner’s developing mental processes.
10. Cognitive restructuring whereby perception, memory, and action are re-evaluated and
re-ordered. The internalization of this structure becomes part of the learner’s inner
self-regulating voice.
For this study the mediator is a special needs education teacher who uses tools such as
language and teaching material to help the child to discover and learn. The whole process of
mediation by the teacher is based on her/his interactions with learners. It will be important to
consider the following: Teacher and learner interaction and teacher’s presentation of teaching
materials as mediation tools. The teacher is in between the learner and the teaching material.
Therefore being a mediator will depend upon how a teacher integrates his/her learners with
the learner former knowledge and the teaching material so that the learner can acquire new
knowledge.