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2020
An Evaluation of a Brief Mindfulness and Values Training on Cyber
An Evaluation of a Brief Mindfulness and Values Training on Cyber
Bullying Behavior in College Students
Bullying Behavior in College Students
Emily M. Boduch
Minnesota State University, Mankato
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in college students italics [Master’s thesis, Minnesota State University, Mankato]. Cornerstone: A
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An Evaluation of a Brief Mindfulness and Values Training on Cyber Bullying Behavior in
College Students
By
Emily M. Boduch
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
In
Clinical Psychology
Minnesota State University, Mankato
Mankato, Minnesota
6/22/2020
i
An Evaluation of a Brief Mindfulness and Values Training on Cyber Bullying Behavior in
College Students
Emily M. Boduch
This thesis has been examined and approved by the following members of the student’s
committee.
________________________________
Angelica Aguirre: Advisor
________________________________
Kristie Campana: Committee Member
________________________________
Dan Houlihan: Committee Member
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
iii
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 36
Figure 1
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Figure 2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Figure 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 43
Figure 4
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 44
Appendix A: Experimental Script………………………………………………………………………….. 45
Appendix B: Worksheets and Activities …………………………………………………………………. 59
Values Worksheet ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
59
Values in Action Worksheet …………………………………………………………………………………………
61
Control Group Session 1 Activity ………………………………………………………………………………….
62
Control Group Session 2 Video …………………………………………………………………………………….
63
Control Group Session 3 Activity ………………………………………………………………………………….
64
Control Group Session 4 Videos ……………………………………………………………………………………
65
Appendix C: Questionnaires ………………………………………………………………………………… 66
Cyber-Aggression Typology Questionnaire (CATQ) ……………………………………………………….
66
Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) …………………………………………………………..
67
Appendix D: Informed Consent ……………………………………………………………………………. 69
Appendix E: Campus Resources …………………………………………………………………………… 72
iii
Abstract
Cyber bullying is associated with many negative outcomes for both the bully and
the victim (Fahy et al., 2016; Kowalski et al., 2014; Merrell et al., 2008; Quintana-Orts &
Rey, 2018). There has been a large research focus on the causes (Barlett & Gentile, 2012;
Mehari & Farrell, 2018) and consequences (Fahy et al., 2016) of cyber aggression, but
there has not been as much focus on the evaluation of prevention and intervention
strategies (Gaffney et al., 2018). While cyber bullying is primarily targeted in
adolescence, Tynes, Rose, and Markoe (2013) showed that online aggression occurs
amongst university students as well, resulting in a decreased sense of belonging to the
campus community. One intervention that shows promise for the reduction of cyber
bullying behavior is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), which uses several
techniques, including mindfulness and values techniques, to increase psychological
flexibility (Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017; Villatte et al., 2016; Zarling, Lawrence, and
Marchman, 2015). The current study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a brief
mindfulness and values training for reducing the frequency of cyber bullying behavior in
college students. Focusing primarily on the mindfulness and values components of the
ACT package to determine whether they will be enough to effectively reduce cyber
bullying behavior through increased awareness, compassion, and goal-directed behavior.
A preliminary analysis of the data showed a decrease in cyber bullying behaviors from
pre-test to post-test which continued into the follow-up. No changes in mindfulness were
observed.
1
Introduction
Cyber bullying is most commonly defined as the repeated use of an electronic
device to intentionally harm another individual lower on a power hierarchy (Kowalski et
al., 2014; Merrell et al., 2008; Patchin & Hinduja, 2015). In cases of in-person bullying
this could be someone physically smaller or weaker, but online it is more commonly
referred to someone who is less able to defend themselves (Gaffney et al., 2018;
Kowalski et al., 2014). The victim may not have the popularity, confidence, or
competence to stand up to the bully and there is also the possibility of the bully
possessing knowledge or media that could potentially harm the victim if disclosed to
others (Patchin & Hinduja, 2015). Harm can include a wide range of behaviors such as
threats, insults, embarrassment, social isolation, guilt, blackmail, and degradation
(Kowalski et al., 2014; Mehari & Farrell, 2018; Patchin & Hinduja, 2015). The
prevalence rates of cyber bullying have varied greatly, with a majority of research
agreeing on a prevalence of about 10-40% (Kowalski et al., 2014). The wide range can be
attributed to many factors including the populations studied (e.g., their age and whether
the study focused on the bully, the victim, or a combination of the two), the measurement
timeframe (e.g., whether bullying was assessed over a life-time, the past year, past two
weeks, etc.), and the definition of ‘cyber bully’ used in the study (Kowalski et al., 2014).
There are four components present in most definitions of cyber bullying and they
are largely reflective of what makes an in-person bully. The components include intent
to harm the other individual, repeated harassment, a power difference between the bully
and victim, and the use of an electronic device (Kowalski et al., 2014; Merrell et al.,
2
2008). But not all research on cyber bullying includes the same definition, nor the same
four components as listed above. For example, in a study by Espelage et al. (2015), cyber
bullying was defined more simply as someone who engages in ‘mean’ behaviors online.
Patchin and Hinduja (2015) explain that, although easily defined, cyber bullying can be
complicated to measure. Bullying online isn’t as straight forward as bullying in-person.
Pettalia, Levin, and Dickenson (2013) excluded the repetition criteria from their
definition of cyber bully because online, harmful messages have the ability to spread
quickly to a large audience. One act of cyber aggression could cause repeated damage to
the victim over many days. When considering intent, it is important to remember that
interactions online lack context and emotional reactivity (Kowalski et al., 2014; Patchin
& Hinduja, 2015). Perpetrators may be unaware of the direct effects of their behaviors on
the ‘victim’ and ‘victims’ could also misinterpret messages as being more aggressive than
the ‘bully’ had intended. The possibility for misinterpretation can make it difficult to
determine intent. In a study conducted by Ybarra, Espelage, and Mitchell (2014), less
than half (42%) of youth who had been victims of bullying online reported a difference in
power between them and the bully. Regardless of the definition, however, the act of
cyber aggression can have some serious consequences for both the bully and the victim.
Outcomes of Cyber Bullying
Involvement in cyber bullying has been linked with many negative behavioral,
mental- and physical-health outcomes for both the bully and the victim. Additionally,
cyber bullying victimization increases the likelihood of perpetration (Kowalski et al.,
2014; Quintana-Orts & Rey, 2018). Runions, Bak, and Shaw (2017) found that
3
controlled-appetitive cyber aggression, or aggression that is both intentional and aimed at
increasing the positive emotional state of the aggressor, had the strongest correlation with
cyber victimization (r = .24, p < .001). The impulsive-aversive typology, or aggression
that occurs automatically as a result of perceived provocation, had a much lower
correlation (r = .16, p = .05) and the controlled-aversive and impulsive-appetitive
typologies were not correlated at all. This data suggests that some victims may be
engaging in cyber bullying behaviors as a means of retaliation, or to get back at someone
who had bullied them, thus perpetuating a cycle of victim to bully. Some of the negative
effects of cyber bullying engagement include absenteeism from work or school, drug use,
self-injury, suicide, violence, decreased self-esteem, anxiety, depression, reduced self-
control, and poorer physical-health (Fahy et al., 2016; Kowalski et al., 2014; Merrell et
al., 2008; Quintana-Orts & Rey, 2018). It is also important to note that, even when not
meeting criteria for bullying victimization, youth who are victims of online aggression
have demonstrated elevated rates of psychological problems when compared to their non-
victimized peers (Ybarra, Espelage, & Mitchell, 2014). The potential outcomes of
bullying can be severe and life threatening. It is a problem that needs to be addressed for
the safety and well-being of all who are involved, making the evaluation of cyber bulling
interventions an important research target.
Intervention Research for the Reduction of Cyber Bullying
Research thus far has focused primarily on the causes (Barlett & Gentile, 2012;
Mehari & Farrell, 2018) and consequences (Fahy et al., 2016) of cyber aggression. While
this information is necessary for the development of prevention and intervention
4
strategies, it is also important to consider whether these strategies are effective at
reducing the behavior. The evaluation of current anti-bullying interventions can provide
information on what techniques work best and under what circumstances. Additionally,
we can fine tune strategies, making them easier to implement in various settings.
In a meta-analysis on school bullying interventions conducted by Merrell et al.
(2008), current interventions were found to increase positive behavior in students, but a
majority of these interventions were not shown to be effective at reducing bullying itself.
In total, 31 effect sizes were computed over 4 bullying domains (bullying others, being
bullied, teacher’s report of emotional/behavioral problems, and peer reports of bullying
participation). The results of this analysis showed that 11 of the 31 calculated bullying
outcomes were significant and considered to have a positive effect on the reduction of
bullying behaviors; 6 were significant and demonstrated negative effects, or worsened
bullying behaviors; and 14 outcomes were below the threshold to be considered to have
had an effect (Cohen’s d < .20), in other words, bullying was not impacted by these
interventions. When looking at cyber bullying interventions specifically, there is less
research available. Gaffney et al. (2018) conducted a recent meta-analysis on the
effectiveness of anti cyber bullying programs. Of the 24 studies included in their analysis,
only three had been conducted in the United States. It is clear that more research is
needed in this area.
Some of the strategies being used currently have shown mixed results. Roberto et
al. (2014) conducted a study evaluating the efficacy of an in-school program for
promoting cyber safety and reducing students’ willingness to engage in cyber bullying.
5
This study evaluated the Arizona Attorney General’s Social Networking Safety
Promotion and Cyberbullying Prevention program which was designed to target students’
perception of the consequences and threats, as well as their attitudes and intentions
regarding cyber safety and cyber bullying perpetration (Roberto et al., 2014). Cyber
bullying susceptibility, or risk of getting into trouble, and severity, the degree of trouble
the perpetrator believed they would be in, if caught, was measured using an adapted
version of the Risk Behavior Diagnostic Scale (RBD). Participants responded using a
five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree to three
statements assessing susceptibility (e.g., “I am at risk of getting into trouble if I use a cell
phone or the internet to hurt or embarrass someone”) and severity (e.g., “I believe that
getting into trouble for using a cell phone or the internet to hurt or embarrass someone
would lead to very bad problems”). Intention to engage in cyber bullying behaviors was
measured using the same five-point Likert scale and included three questions such as, “It
is likely that I will use a cell phone or the internet to hurt or embarrass someone in the
future.” Additionally, attitudes towards cyber bullying were assessed using the following
statement: “For me, using a cell phone or the internet to hurt or embarrass someone is:
bad-good, boring-fun, harmful-helpful.” The results of this study showed that the
perceived severity of consequences for cyber bullying, but not the likelihood of getting
into trouble, significantly predicted attitudes towards, and intent to engage in, bullying. A
comparison between the experimental and control groups revealed that students’ who
participated in the intervention reported significantly less intention to retaliate when
bullied online (Roberto et al., 2014). It is important to note that this study did not directly
6
measure cyber bullying engagement, but rather, intent to engage in the behavior. It is
unclear, based on these results, whether cyber bullying was actually reduced through the
implementation of this program.
Another study evaluated the Second Step: Student Success Through Prevention
program. This program was designed to be a weekly (or bi-weekly) intervention,
delivered in grades 6 through 8, to target aggression, violence, and drug use through the
promotion of social skills, empathy, and school connectedness (Espelage et al., 2015). A
clinical trial by Espelage et al. (2015) evaluated the Second Step program’s efficacy at
reducing aggressive behaviors in a sample of 3,651 students across 36 schools. The
aggressive behaviors measured in this study included homophobic name calling, bullying
in-person, cyber bullying, and sexual harassment. The researchers also collected data on
self-reported delinquent behaviors from the students being studied. Interestingly, no
significant main effects of the intervention on bullying were found. The researchers did,
however, identify a significant relationship between changes in self-reported delinquency
and bullying perpetration in that self-reported delinquency mediated the relationship
between treatment conditions and outcomes (Espelage et al., 2015). Although not directly
targeted by this intervention, bullying was reduced when other delinquent behaviors
decreased.
An evaluation of student perspectives on cyber bully prevention techniques,
conducted by Kraft and Wang (2009), asked a nation-wide sample of 713 middle- and
high school students to complete a survey and rate, on a scale of 1 very ineffective to 5
very effective, fourteen different cyber bullying prevention strategies. The goal was to
7
determine which techniques students thought would be most effective at preventing cyber
bullying engagement. Some of the strategies included in the survey were loss of internet
privileges or required netiquette classes for the offender; student education on bullying;
setting and enforcing clear rules and penalties regarding cyber bullying; and ongoing
cyber bullying prevention programs. Results from this survey indicated that students who
had reported participating in cyber bullying, compared to those who had reported not
being involved or being victimized only, had different opinions regarding which
strategies would be effective. However, regardless of bullying status, students did agree
on what they thought would be the top three most effective strategies: 1) no access to
social networking sites for the offender, 2) parents restricting the offender’s access to
their phone and computer, and 3) no computer use in school or at home for the offender
(Kraft & Wang, 2009). More importantly, the use of ongoing cyber bullying prevention
programs was generally rated as slightly higher than 3 (neither effective nor ineffective)
across all participants; the average scores ranged from 3.43 for pure-offenders to 3.68 for
pure-victims (Kraft & Wang, 2009). It should also be noted that these prevention
programs were evaluated more highly by the victims and those who were uninvolved in
cyber bullying than by the bullies themselves. If cyber bullying is to be reduced, these
programs need to be more effective at deterring the bullies and bully-victims, rather than
the pure-victims or those who are uninvolved.
As demonstrated above, data on intervention effectiveness is scarce, indicating a
need for continued research in this area. Merrell et al.’s research (2008) demonstrates that
anti-bullying interventions can be effective in some cases, we just need to determine
8
which ones and under what circumstances. Evaluating the effectiveness of programs
designed to reduce cyber bullying behaviors is important for minimizing the harmful
effects cause by engagement in these behaviors.
Mindfulness and Values Components of ACT
A technique that may be helpful in reducing cyber bullying behavior is
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). ACT is an intervention which aims to
decrease automatic behaviors, such as impulses or habits, through increased
psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility is the ability to focus awareness on the
details of the present moment and to change or persist in behavior that is in line with an
individual’s chosen values (Hayes, 2017; Zhang et al., 2018). ACT uses several
techniques to develop psychological flexibility including mindfulness, or present moment
awareness; acceptance of difficult thoughts and/or emotions; cognitive diffusion, or
distancing from and deliteralization of thoughts; perspective taking; values identification;
and committed action towards valued behavior (Zarling, Lawrence, & Marchman, 2015),
but two key targets of all ACT interventions are awareness and intention (Villatte et al.,
2016). Awareness and intention are important components in behavior modification. A
lack of awareness makes it easy for an individual to slip into a pattern of automatic
responding that is based primarily on immediate relief/gratification rather than their
values. ACT has been shown to be successful at improving caregiver interactions (Castro
et al., 2016; Chancey et al., 2019); decreasing psychological distress, increasing self-
compassion (Yadavaia, Hayes, & Vilardaga 2014); and reducing both physical and
psychological acts of partner aggression (Zarling, Lawrence, & Marchman, 2015).
9
However, to our knowledge, ACT has not been tested for efficacy in the reduction of
cyber bullying behaviors.
The main targets of the ACT package (awareness and intention) could be useful in
the reduction of cyber bullying behavior, as will be explained in the next two sections on
mindfulness and values, but the entire ACT package may not be necessary to teach these
skills. Mindfulness practices can be used to increase an individual’s awareness of their
own thoughts and emotions, as well as the unintentional behavior patterns that can result
from responding automatically (based on judgements or expectations) to these thoughts
and emotions (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017). Values trainings
can help increase intention by providing direction towards behavioral choices congruent
with what really matters to the individual (Castro, Rehfeldt, & Root, 2016; Christie,
Atkins, & Donald, 2017).
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is a practice that has been used, in various forms of meditation, for
hundreds of years (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Gunaratana, 2011). It has been described as the
ability to focus attention on the present moment, as it is, without the influence of
judgements or expectations (Gunaratana, 2011; Hayes & Smith, 2005). Present-moment
awareness is a key component of psychological flexibility which is important for self-
regulated behavior. Mindfulness-based interventions have been successful at reducing
stress, anger, anxiety, and depression, as well as increasing well-being (Brown & Ryan,
2003; Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016). Research on mindfulness has supported its
effectiveness at increasing both emotion regulation as well as engagement in intentional
10
behavior (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017). By developing
present moment awareness, individuals will be better equipped to act on thoughts and
emotions in a way that is more in line with chosen values.
Mindfulness can be useful in the reduction of cyber bullying behaviors because it
increases awareness to how our actions impact others and empathy towards what others
might be going through. Mindfulness has been used in compassion trainings to increase
emotional awareness and help individuals become more accepting of their thoughts and
feelings (Gilbert, 2010; Jazaieri et al., 2018). Jazaieri et al. (2018) conducted a study
evaluating the effects of compassion training on affect regulation and found that, while
compassion training did increase participants’ ability to regulate affective states, their
desire to do so had decreased. Participants in this study demonstrated higher levels of
acceptance and decreased affective suppression. In other words, they had the ability, but
no longer the need, to regulate affective states. Compassion trainings can also be useful in
the reduction of cyber bulling behaviors through increased empathy, or the ability to
understand another individual’s perspective (Gilbert, 2010). Kowalski et al. (2014)
identified empathy as a protective factor against cyber bullying, with higher levels of
empathy correlating with lower levels of cyber bullying perpetration. Additionally, the
ability to forgive has been found to act as a protective factor against the cycle of cyber
bully victim to perpetrator, reducing cyber aggression as a means of revenge (Quintana-
Orts & Rey, 2018). In a study by Chancey et al. (2019), researchers found that the use of
the mindfulness component of ACT, alone, was enough to improve caregiver interactions
towards clients. Positive caregiver interactions are important for patient well-being but
11
can be difficult to maintain while dealing with profound behavioral problems. In their
study, a multiple baseline approach was used to observe three direct care staff workers,
over a series of five short mindfulness workshops, to evaluate changes in staff
interactions with adult patients with developmental disabilities. Each workshop lasted
approximately fifteen minutes and consisted of a brief mindfulness discussion and
activity. Results revealed an increase in staff-initiated patient interactions after initiation
of the mindfulness workshops which was maintained at follow-up (Chancey et al., 2019).
The results of this study suggest that mindfulness could improve social interactions
through increased engagement in the present-moment, resulting in a reduced influence of
bias, as well as increased flexibility during difficult interactions (Chancey et al., 2019).
While awareness is important for recognizing maladaptive behavioral patterns, intention
is also necessary to direct behavior towards more meaningful outcomes. One way to
increase intentional behavior is through values identification.
Values
Values represent what is most meaningful to someone. They are not goals,
because they are never truly accomplished, but rather, a way of living. Values have been
commonly described as freely chosen principles that are actively created and help guide
behavior (Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017; Hayes, ACBS; Wilson et al., 2010). Living
in accordance with one’s values has been shown to be associated with decreased
psychological distress, increased adjustment, and improved well-being (Christie, Atkins,
& Donald 2017; Wilson et al., 2010). Additionally, value-driven behavior is known to be
intrinsically reinforcing (Wilson et al., 2010). Therefore, acting in line with one’s values,
12
in itself, is enough to motivate increased value-driven behavior. Castro, Rehfeldt, and
Root (2016) conducted a study on caregiver interactions and found a relationship between
values clarification and committed action. In their study, three direct-care staff workers at
a treatment facility for adults with developmental disabilities participated in two values-
based workshops consisting of three sessions each. The first workshop focused on
clarifying personal values and identifying committed actions towards these values. The
second workshop was a replication of the first but with a focus on work-related values.
Upon completion of the two workshops, caregiver interactions with clients increased
from baseline by about 11 to 16 instances for each worker (Castro, Rehfeldt, & Root,
2016). In another study by Villatte et al. (2016), the values component of the ACT
package alone was found to be enough to significantly improve psychiatric symptoms,
quality of life, and values-based activation in adults seeking mental health treatment.
Short-term values interventions have also been shown to be effective at reducing
defensiveness against self-threatening information in college students (Crocker, Niiva, &
Mischkowski, 2008). Together, these studies demonstrate the ability of values trainings to
increase meaningful behavior change.
In summary, research suggests that a mindfulness and values training could be useful
for the reduction of cyber bullying behaviors through increased awareness and
understanding of our own thoughts and feelings, as well as the thoughts and feelings of
others, and the development of greater control over emotionally driven behavior
reactions. Although a majority of research has focused on middle school adolescents,
cyber bullying occurs amongst university students as well. Tynes, Rose, and Markoe
13
(2013) evaluated survey data from a sample of 261 undergraduate university students and
found that online victimization was associated with negative perceptions of campus racial
climate. In other words, the more an individual was victimized online, regardless of race,
the more negatively they viewed group relations and institutional practices on diversity.
Tynes, Rose, and Markoe (2013) reported evidence that a student’s perception of campus
racial climate has an impact on their sense of belonging as well as their academic
performance. Cyber bullying in college populations is greatly understudied and further
research is needed to identify ways to protect this population from the negative effects of
online aggression.
The Current Study
In the present study, we aim to test the efficacy of a brief mindfulness and values
intervention for the reduction of self-reported cyber bullying behavior in college students.
Cyber bullying has been defined as a repetitive and intentional act (Kowalski et al., 2014;
Merrell et al., 2008); however, these constructs can be difficult to measure, and cyber
aggression alone has been demonstrated to be harmful and likely to increase the
probability of retaliation from the victim (Runions et al., 2017; Ybarra, Espelage, &
Mitchell, 2014). It is for this reason that the current intervention was designed to target
the broader category of cyber bullying behaviors, or more simply stated, cyber
aggression. A brief mindfulness and values training will be used to reduce cyber bullying
behavior through:
14
(1) Increase moment-to-moment awareness of the external and internal
environments, without judgement. Paying attention in-the-moment is beneficial
because it requires a constant re-evaluation of both experience and emotion.
Evaluating each moment without the influence of judgement or expectation
allows more conscious and intentional behavioral decisions to be made. The
benefit is a reduction in habitual behavior patterns and automatic emotional
reactions (Shapiro et al., 2006).
(2) Identify personal values. Automatic behaviors are typically not congruent with an
individual’s values. For example, many individuals engaging in cyber bullying
behavior probably don’t actually want to be viewed as a bully. These individuals
may have reacted strongly to an emotion or could have been engaging in a
behavior that they considered playful or harmless such as trolling. Values are
important because they act as a guide for our behavior, once identified, we can
choose to act in a way that is in congruence with these values (Hayes, 2017).
(3) Cultivate compassion towards the self and others. Emotions can become strong
determinants of behavior and how they are interpreted can be the difference
between the calming or worsening of an emotional state. Compassion training is
designed to increase mindfulness of one’s own emotional state as well as the
emotions of others (Gilbert, 2010), leading to increased acceptance of our
experiences and the ability to self-regulate (Jazaieri et al., 2018).
(4) Put values into action. Living in accordance with one’s values is both intrinsically
reinforcing and it motivates continued value-based behavior (Christie, Atkins, &
15
Donald, 2017). By asking participants to identify ways in which they can behave
in accordance with their values, they will be more likely to persist in these
behaviors long-term.
Data will be collected from two groups (a control and an experimental) to answer
four primary research questions (1) will the training be effective at reducing self-
reported cyber bullying behaviors in college students?; (2) does higher engagement in
self-reported cyber bullying behavior predict lower mindfulness scores?; (3) Will the
training be effective at increasing dispositional mindfulness in college students?; and
(4) are changes in participant’s mindfulness scores related to changes in self-reported
cyber bullying behavior?
Methods
Participants and Settings
Participants were twenty-three college students from a public university in
Southern Minnesota. Of these students, one did not show up to the first session, six did
not meet criteria to continue in the study, and seven had to be dismissed due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. In total, nine participants were selected for participation in this
study. Recruitment was done using Sona Systems, a research participation website for
students. All participants were required to be at least 18 years of age to participate in the
study. The Cyber Aggression Typology Questionnaire (CATQ) was administered during
the first session to assess for current participation in cyber bullying behavior. A minimum
score of two or higher on at least three questions was requited to continue participation in
16
this study. This cutoff score was set to reduce the chances of a ceiling effect. In other
words, participants who did not currently participate in cyber bullying behaviors could
not have been expected to show much improvement as a result of the intervention. All
training sessions were conducted in an empty conference room at a university in Southern
Minnesota. The room was furnished with a couch, chairs, a table, and three lamps. A
sound machine was placed outside the door for privacy and to minimize distractions from
outside noises.
Materials
The materials required for this experiment included the Cyber Aggression
Typology Questionnaire (CATQ) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS),
which were administered to all participants at three timepoints during the course of the
study (pre-test, post-test, and at a one-month follow-up). Other required materials
included two values worksheets (a Values Worksheet and a Values in Action Worksheet).
The values worksheets were used in sessions two and four to help participants in the
experimental group identify their values and find ways to put them into action.
Cyber-Aggression Typology Questionnaire. The Cyber-Aggression Typology
Questionnaire (CATQ) is a 29-item self-report questionnaire assessing cyber aggression
driven by both appetitive and aversive motives (Runions et al., 2017). The questionnaire
also assesses the degree of impulsivity or control the individual has over their actions.
Items are broken up into four categories; rage (impulsive-aversive), revenge (controlled-
aversive), reward (controlled appetitive), and recreation (impulsive-appetitive). Sample
items from the questionnaire include; “If I get teased or threatened, I get angry easily and
17
strike back online right away” (rage), “If someone tries to hurt me, I will use electronic
device(s) to get back at them in my own time” (revenge), “Sometimes I’ll team up with my
friends to bring someone down online” (reward), and “I repeatedly annoy people online
because I think it’s funny” (recreation). The CATQ asks participants to rate, on a scale of
1 (Very Unlike Me) to 4 (Very Like Me), the degree to which each statement is
descriptive of themselves. For the purposes of this study, the questionnaire was modified
to specify that participants rate their behaviors occurring over the past two weeks. The
CATQ has been validated against other well-established measures of cyber bullying and
aggression including the Berlin Cyberbullying- Cybervictimization Questionnaire, the
Reactive-Proactive Questionnaire, and the BIS/BAS scales of behavioral inhibition and
activation (Runions et al., 2017). The CATQ fits the needs of the current study because of
its ability to assess for participation in a wide variety of cyber bullying behaviors, making
it possible for us to assess increases or decreases in the behaviors.
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale. The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale
(MAAS) is a 15-item self-report questionnaire that assesses dispositional mindfulness;
open and receptive awareness and attention to the present moment. The MAAS asks
participants to rate, on scale of 1 (Almost Always) to 6 (Almost Never), how often they
engage in mindless activity, e.g., “I could experience some emotion and not be conscious
of it until sometime later” and “I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware of
what I am doing.” Individuals who score higher on the MAAS have been shown to
demonstrate increased awareness and acceptance of their inner experiences and tend to be
more cognizant of their behavior (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The MAAS is able to assess
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changes in the frequency of mindful states over time, making it the ideal scale to use for
this study. The MAAS also demonstrates strong psychometric properties including strong
test-retest reliability, t(59)=.11, p = n.s. (Brown & Ryan, 2003). In other words, no
significant differences were found between the first and second administrations of this
questionnaire. The results are stable and reliable.
Dependent Measures
Self-reported participation in cyber bullying behavior, as measured by the CATQ,
will be the primary dependent variable in this study. The participants’ mindfulness score,
measured with the MAAS, will serve as a secondary dependent variable.
Experimental Design
The MAAS and the CATQ were administered to all participants at three time
points throughout the study; once at pre-test, once at post-test, and again one-month post-
intervention for a follow-up. Participants were assigned to either the control or
experimental group based on the order in which they signed up for the study (odd
numbered participants were assigned to the experimental group and even numbered
participants to the control group). A brief mindfulness and values training was the
primary independent variable in this study. The experimental group participated in four
training sessions (twice a week for two weeks), each lasting approximately 15-20
minutes. The control group participated in an equal number of sessions, which lasted
approximately the same amount of time, and engaged in a series of psycho-educational
activities. This study aimed to answer four questions (1) will a brief mindfulness and
values training reduce self-reported cyber bullying behaviors (as measured by the CATQ)
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in college students?; (2) At pre-test, across all participants, does self-reported cyber
bullying behavior (as measured by the CATQ) predict lower scores on the MAAS?; (3)
Will a brief mindfulness and values training increase dispositional mindfulness in college
students (as measured by the MAAS)?; and (4) are changes in participant scores on the
MAAS correlated with changes on the CATQ?
Experimental session one. Upon arrival to the first session, participants in the
experimental group were given a brief introduction to the concept of mindfulness (see
Appendix A for a copy of the intervention script). Following this introduction,
participants were guided through a series of two mindfulness exercises. The first exercise,
5 Things, was designed to teach participants how to pause, center themselves, and pay
attention in the present moment (Chancey et al., 2018). Present moment awareness is a
key component of psychological flexibility; the ability to continue a certain behavior or
consciously change it to be more in line with one’s personal values (Zhang et al., 2018).
The 5 things exercise teaches participants to develop a mindful attention of their external
environment. The next exercise, Deep Breathing, was designed teach participants how to
cultivate that same awareness towards their internal environment. Deep Breathing helps
individuals focus their attention on their own experiences, in the moment, without
judgement (Mirgain, 2016).
Experimental session two. Session two began with a recap of what was learned
in the first session. Following this recap, participants were guided through a values
exercise. The values exercise began with an introduction to values and how they help to
guide meaningful behavior. Values are what is important to an individual, they represent
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who we want to be. Behaviors that are in-line with one’s values are intrinsically
reinforcing (Wilson et al., 2010). Living in accordance with one’s values has been shown
to be associated with decreases in psychological distress and increased adjustment, as
well as improved well-being (Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017; Wilson et al., 2010).
Participants were provided with a values worksheet which included a semi-completed
values diagram as an example. The worksheet presented 10 value categories (e.g.,
“Family,” “Friends/Peers,” “Employment,” etc.) for to the participant to fill in with their
own personal values. Photographs were taken of the completed worksheets and stored in
an electronic database; the paper copies were returned to participants to take home. The
second session concluded with a mindfulness exercise called the body scan (Chancey et
al., 2018). The body scan exercise is good for practicing mindful attention as well as non-
judgmental acceptance of one’s own experience, in the moment. Mindfulness plays an
important role in value-based action by helping to reduce habitual and automatic
behaviors and judgements. Increased awareness of the present moment allows an
individual to make conscious behavior-decisions that are more likely to be in line with
their own personal values (Christie, Atkins, & Donald, 2017). For this exercise
participants were instructed to find a comfortable position, either in their seat or laying
down on a mat. The experimenter then instructed them to close their eyes and listen to
their voice as they guided the participants through a brief meditative practice designed to
bring attention to the physical body and internal experiences.
Experimental session three. The third session focused on mindfulness and
compassion. When stressed or upset it can become automatic for individuals to react out
