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Brand Storytelling used by the Irish Food and Drink
Industry Advertisements
Dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
M.Sc. Marketing
Dublin Business School
Unaiza Shabbir
10375504
Supervisor: Alan Morgan
Word Count: 18,502
January 7th, 2019
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Declaration
I, Unaiza Shabbir, declare that this research is my original work and that it has never been presented
to any institution or university for the award of Degree or Diploma. In addition, I have referenced
correctly all literature and sources used in this work and this work is fully compliant with the Dublin
Business School’s academic honesty policy.
Signed: Unaiza Shabbir
Date: 6th January 2019
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Acknowledgement
I would like to express my appreciation and acknowledgement for a number of people who made this
dissertation possible. I would like to thank my supervisor Alan Morgan for his constant support and
guidance throughout this dissertation. I would like to offer a special thanks to all the participants who
took part in my focus group, your input was greatly appreciated. Last but not the least I’d like to
thank my parents, my partner Hannah and my friends who have been my rock throughout the course
of the degree.
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate consumer’s perceptions on brand-storytelling executed
in Irish food and drink industry advertisements. This aim of this study was to investigate the
perception of consumers from Dublin, Ireland. The researcher conducted four focus groups as part of
this study. The focus group discussions allowed the researcher to determine an in-depth knowledge
about the opinions and perception of the participants. The data was collected and analyzed using
thematic analysis. The results of this research show that Irish food and drink industry advertisements
executed using story-telling may create brand-loyalty, purchase intention and a positive consumer
perception. The study also shows that Irish consumers connect better with the Irish food and drink
brand stories compared to other participants.
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Table of Content
List of tables and figures
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1. Introduction
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1.1 Background of the research
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1.2 Irish Food and Drink Industry
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1.3 Context for the research
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1.4 Research question and objectives
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1.5 Dissertation Road-map
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1.6 Limitations
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2. Literature Review
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2.1 Brand Storytelling
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2.2 Brand
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2.3 Brand Image
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2.4 Brand Knowledge
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2.4.1 Brand Awareness
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2.5 Brand Personality
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2.6 Consumer Neuroscience
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2.6.1 Brand Preferences
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2.6.2 Cortical Relief
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2.6.3 System1, System2
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2.7 Brand Loyalty
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3. Research Methodology
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3.1 Research Methodology Introduction
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3.2 Research Design
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3.2.1 Research Philosophy
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3.2.2 Research Approach
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3.2.3 Research Strategy
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3.2.4 Exploratory Research
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3.2.5 Research Choice
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3.3 Research Time Horizon
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3.4 Population and Sampling
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3.5 Data Collection
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3.5.1 Secondary Data Collection
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3.5.2 Primary Data Collection
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3.6 Focus Group
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3.6.1 Planning the Focus Group
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3.6.2 Conduction the Focus Group
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3.6.3 Issues in Focus Group
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3.6.4 Reporting the Focus Group Data
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3.7 Research Ethics
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3.8 Limitations to the research
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4. Data Analysis
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4.1 Introduction
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4.2 Objectives. Loyalty, Perceptions and Purchase intention
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4.3 Guinness Advert – ‘Behind every great horse’
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4.4 DairyGold – ‘What would you do in an extra minute?’
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4.5 Jamesons – ‘Scully was to blame’
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5. Conclusion and Recommendations
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5.1 Introduction
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5.2 Objective 1 – Consumer Brand Perception
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5.3 Objective 2 – Generate greater purchase intentions
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5.4 Objective 3 – Favourable change in consumer’s brand loyalty
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5.5 Consumer Nostalgia
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5.6 Sensory Marketing
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5.7 Brand Relatability
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5.8 Recommendations
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5.9 Limitations and Suggestions for further research
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6. Self-Reflection on learning style
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6.1 Learning Styles
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6.2 Master of Science Marketing Degree
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References
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Appendix
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List of Images, Tables and Figures
Images
Image 1: Guinness advertising campaign (Photo Credit: Guinness)
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Image 2: Bord Bia, Irish food drink industry fact and figures
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Image 3: John Lewis & Partners Christmas ad 2018
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List of Tables
Table 1: Definitions of Brand Image
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Table 2: Description and focus of measurement of commonly used Neurophysiological tools
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Table 3: Interpretivism Philosophy
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Table 4: Advertisements used in the Focus Groups
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Table 5: Budget
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Brand Identity Framework
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Figure 2: Keller’s Brand Equity Model
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Figure 3: Double Vortex Brand Equity Model
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Figure 4: Brand Image Factors
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Figure 5: Brand Personality Framework
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Figure 6: The Research Onion
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Figure 7: Research Methods Choice
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Figure 8: Types of Secondary Data
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Figure 9: Learning Styles
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the research
The Irish food and drink industry is constantly growing (Daly. J, 2016). As a growing
industry, Irish food and drink brands have invested a lot of energy in understanding consumer
perceptions and the most effective ways to reach to them. Brand-storytelling is the new trend in the
world of advertising; it is based on the evidence that advertisements based on storytelling connect
better than those executed using straight-sell techniques. The way brands connect with consumers
have evolved over time. It is every brands’ main objective to connect and influence the consumers
behavior towards a favorable result; in most cases that would be a consumer making a purchase.
Advertisers are constantly trying to understand and predict consumers behavior in an attempt to
influence it. Brand Storytelling have received a lot of academic attention over the past few years,
however none specifically regarding Irish food and drink industry brands. This dissertation explores
consumers perception towards brand storytelling as used in the Irish food and drink industry
advertisements.
Stories are universal, and all the cultures have experience them, they are an essential part of
‘human cognitive development’ which means its been part of our interaction since a very long time
(Scott, M. D, 2016.p.59; also see Haven, 2014). Although the topic has gained popularity in regard to
branding only in recent times, many neuro-scientists have proved the positive effects of storytelling
on the human mind, ‘anyone who pronounces with certainty one concrete reason for storytelling
faces obloquy’ (Yorke. J, 2013. p.210). John Yorke in his book ‘Into the woods: how stories work
and why we tell them’ forms a connection between storytelling and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs by
stating that stories give us a sense of connection which comes within our basic human needs (Yorke,
J. 2013. p.131). A story-consultant; Kendall Haven mentions that ‘our brains are hardwired to think,
to understand, to make sense and to remember in specific story terms and elements’ he goes on to
say that stories influence consumers in three steps:
1. Stories grab the audience’s attention. Supporting this idea John Yorke says we immediately
ask ‘What Happened’ when we are faced with a story setting.
2. Stories necessitate the audience to engage. Critical to understanding of story is how
customers tell themselves the stories that define them (Scott, M. D, 2016.p.60).
3. Lastly stories connect with the audience by forming an emotional connection.
This explains why brand-storytelling works so well to connect and influence the customers. For the
Irish food and drink industry, brand story-telling is not a new phenomenon, yet there hasn’t been
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much research done on Irish food and drink industry brands and the use of storytelling. Lindstorm,
M (2008) tell us one out of the many ways the brand Guinness used story-telling to its advantage:
‘First the bar tender pours the glass three-quarters, then we wait and wait, and then he tops it
off. The fact is neither of us mind waiting. The fact is that the ritual of slow pour is part of the
pleasure of drinking a Guinness in the first place, but the ritual didn’t come about by accident.
During the 1990’s Guinness was facing big losses across pubs in British isles because customers
didn’t want to wait ten minutes for the head of their beer to settle so they introduced the
advertisement campaign; Good things come to those who wait’, ‘it takes 119.53 seconds to pour the
perfect pint’ and even aired commercials showing the right way to pour a Guinness, this gave birth to
the ritual’ (See image).
Image 1: Guinness advertising campaign based on the recommended settling time of 119.53 seconds (Photo
Credit: Guinness)
Image 2: Bord Bia, www.irishfoodanddrink.com
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1.2 Irish Food and Drink Industry
Food and drink producers in Ireland are global leaders from 2006 to 2015, total household
consumption have increased by 5.8% (IBEC, Budget 2019 Submission). According to
Ibec’s 2019 budget submission; Food and Drink Industry Ireland is a growing sector with
over 150 companies. ‘A very strong food and drink performance in 2017 saw exports
increase by 11% to €12.26bn’. Furthermore, to support that claim, the stats presented by
Bord Bia Irish Food board show that 2017 was the 8th consecutive year that marked an
increase in exports in the sector. These figures show the importance of food and drink
Industry in Ireland (See Image-2)
1.3 Context for the researcher
Storytelling is the best way to give meaning to brands (Simmons, J. 2006).
“Researchers have proved that sharing our thoughts and experiences triggers the part of our
brain linked with rewards, providing that same level of dopamine that humans experience
from sex, food and exercise” (Mancuso. J & Stuth. K, 2014). Today is the age of
technology, we are constantly in-touch with each other through the web and
communication is fast. In this fast-paced, tech-savvy world; humans crave authenticity,
storytelling enables companies to connect with consumers making companies sound
authentic and human (Scott, M. D, 2016, p.6). Scott, M. D (2016, p.40) further elaborates
the reasons why stories work so well to connect with consumers:
People look for authenticity
They want participation over propaganda
An organizational story cannot be well presented by ad agencies
Individuals at the top of the company are the master storytellers
Consumers want information in a language that they understand
1.4 Research question and Objectives
This research expands on brand-storytelling in marketing framework from previous literature
and applies it to the context of Irish food and drink industry. Previous research has proved the
positive effects of storytelling on consumer perception, it can be proposed that storytelling used by
the Irish food and drink industry may influence consumers perception positively. The central premise
is that brand storytelling would be more effective than traditional straight-sell execution style
advertisements that sell on product attribute information in an argumentative style (Woodside et al,
2008). The following paper presents hypothesis on the effects of storytelling used by brands in
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marketing on 3 types of consumer responses. Though perception towards the brands and purchase
intentions have been examined in the past, research on brand storytelling, and specifically on
consumers perception about Irish brands needs to be done. The constructs examined in this research
are consumer behavior amplified by storytelling used in adverts of Irish food and drink brands via
brand perception, brand loyalty and purchase intention.
The following is the proposed research question for this research:
‘How customers perceive Irish food and drink brand advertisements that are executed using
storytelling’.
There are three main objectives that this research will seek to answer regarding consumer’s behavior
towards the advertisements:
1. To determine factors in the Irish food and drink brand advertisements executed using
storytelling technique that generate a favorable change in consumers perception towards the
brand.
2. To determine factors in the Irish food and drink brand advertisements executed using
storytelling technique that generate greater purchase intentions.
3. To determine factors in the Irish food and drink brand advertisements executed using
storytelling technique that generate consumer brand loyalty.
1.5 Dissertation Road-map
This dissertation was conducted as part of a ‘Masters-degree’ at Dublin Business School.
Following the introduction, the paper consists the literature review which presents previous findings
on brand-storytelling as used by the Irish food and drink industry. The methodology for this research
will be laid out in the third chapter, the paper will justify the qualitative approach and data collection
method. The data will then be assessed for thematic points and objective findings in relation to the
dissertation objectives. The findings will be compared with the literature review. Recommendations
will be formed by cross-referencing the findings with the previous literature. The recommendations
can be used for further research and for Irish food and drink brands to use in forming their brand-
stories. Finally the paper will provide the conclusion and a self-reflection from the dissertation.
1.6 Limitations
The obvious limitations with any short-term study are related to the methodology in place.
The scope of this research is limited, and findings can-not be applied to other contexts seamlessly.
This study analyzes the topic with demographics of specific geographical region; Dublin and can-not
be generalized with rest of the population or geographic regions. In addition to that the researcher
lacks experience in conducting focus groups on professional grounds so there is a possibility of
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misstep in the interpretations in terms of protocols. The researcher conducted extensive research and
preparation to mitigate these risks but since it will be the researcher’s first attempt with focus groups,
there is a scope of error.
The researcher’s personal bias is another limitation. The researchers’ interest in brand-
storytelling makes biases possible based on their tendency to favor the topic. Awareness that results
may not align with the researcher’s personal beliefs must be accounted for and treated as objectively
as possible when recounting the relevant data.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Brand Storytelling
Human memory and communication are story based (Schank, 1990)
Biologically and culturally speaking, narrative is engrained in our mindsets (Boyd, B. 2009,
Niles, J. D. 2010). Many researchers have proved that narrative is a thought process that differs from
logical thinking, brand Storytelling entails conveying messages and sharing gathered knowledge to
help discover
and explain the world around us (Mancuso. J & Stuth. K, 2014), Bruner (1986) agrees
that we like to make sense of the world in form of stories (Bruner, J. S. 1991, 2004). Stories told in
adverts also sometimes called narrative advertising evokes consumer empathy towards the ad
characters, this happens because of consumer-character identification and vicarious participation in
the experiences of the characters in the story (Boller, G. W. and Olson, J. C., 1991).
Archetypes are defined as repeated prototypical elements in stories, like the concept of a Hero
and the Villain; the hero trying to save the day and the villain trying to put obstacles in his way
(Sanders, J & Krieken, V, 2018). This template can be documented in very diverse stories from
poems to Hollywood movies to brand advertisements (Cambell, J. 1949 in Sanders, J & Krieken, V,
2018). Hirschman defines stories as a product of human tendency to see causality in this world
(Hirschman, 2010, p.581). An example of the brand story advertisement would be the John Lewis &
Partner Christmas Ad 2018, which was published by John Lewis & Partners in November but has
constantly been in the trending list on YouTube due to the high number of viewers. The ad tells the
story of the famous singer Elton John and shows his course of journey from a gifted young boy to a
world-famous singer, the film begins in present day and goes back in time until the moment on a
Christmas morning when he gets a piano as a gift; that piano being the start of his journey, the ad
promoting getting gifts for our loved ones (see Image-2).
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Image 3: Source: www.YouTube.com, Ending of the film showing Elton John as a kid gets a piano on Christmas
Brand stories like John Lewis and Partners Christmas Ad, stand out from marketing and
advertising efforts that are executed in a traditional straight-sell method because their primary
objective is not to promote the product. Brand story’s objective is to ‘project brand experiences that
stand out and not only promotes product and price’ (Smith, K and Wintrob, M. 2013, p. 37). Stories
help brands in various ways some of them are creating awareness, empathy, recognition, recall,
comprehension and provide meaning (Singh, S. and Sonnenburg, S. 2012, p.189). A strong consumer
brand relationship is achieved when brands side with the protagonists in achieving their goals
(Woodside, A.G, Sood, S. and Miller, K. E. 2008).
It is important in the marketing context to understand how consumer’s process information
grasped from storytelling. Stories can be used to influence the consumers thought process and to
bring meaning to everyday objects (Twitchell, B, J. 2004). Other formats of information tap into
specific memory areas in the brain (semantic or episodic), “storytelling affects the conscious and
unconscious consumer brand knowledge from episodic and implicit memory” (Koll, O. Sylvia, V.
W. and Kreuzer, M. 2010, p. 589). Consumer’s thought process is affected by narrative terms rather
than argumentative terms (Woodside et al, 2008), especially when they are trying to give meaning to
events (Escals, J. E, 2004).
Storytelling helps brand connect with consumers. A self-brand connection with consumers is
created in storytelling, stories give meaning to a consumers’ life, brand associations are used to
construct one’s self or to communicate one’s self to others (Woodside, G, A. 2010). A strong
connection is forced between brand and consumers self-identity (Woodside, G, A. 2010). Stories
avert consumers focus from product attributes to story elements, allowing them to be immersed in
the story, consumers can then ‘tune out the ad’ (Escalas, J. E. 2004, p.171).
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2.2 Brand
A brand can be defined as ‘a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them
which is intended to identify the good and services of one seller or group of sellers and to
differentiate them from those of competitors’ (Kotler, P. 1991, p.442). A brand is not just a name and
a logo, it is an organizations’ promise to deliver what they stand for in functional and emotional
benefits as well as self-expressive and social benefits (Aaker, D. 2014). Aaker (2014) also defines
brand as a journey and a developing relationship, based on customers perception and experience
every time they connect with the brand (Aaker, 2014).
‘Brands serve as the core of a customer relationship and they perform as a force that
affects all departments; strength of brands lead to customer loyalty, business success,
resilience despite product problems and the basis for moving into new products or
markets’ (Aaker, 2014).
Bivainiene (2007) defines brand as a multidimensional set, integrating tangible and intangible
attributes of the product. Three parts of the brand mentioned in scientific literature are; brand image,
brand identity and brand positioning (Bivainiene, L. 2007).
2.3 Brand Image
Brand image is consumer’s perception of the brand, successful presentation of the brand
image is inherent to the marketing communication process (Bivainiene, L. 2007). The more
favorable consumers’ impression of the product or services, the more likely are they to purchase
them (Fanning, J. 1999, p.4).
Major Definitions of Brand Image
Source
Brand identity framework – four elements: brand as product, brand as an
organization, brand as a person, brand as a symbol
Aaker (1996)
Brand image inclusive: product attributes, brand personality (brand
demographics – origin, age, gender, social class, brand traits –
extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness.
Thakor (1996)
Brand Image construct is composed of three types of brand associations:
attribute, benefit, brand attitude.
Keller (1993)
Double Vortex Brand Model. One of the models integrating both tangible
and intangible elements and relationships among them is the atomic model.
This conceptualizes brands in terms of nine elements: functional capability,
Chernatony,
Riley (1998)
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symbolic feature, service, distinctive name, ownership, shorthand notation,
legal protection, risk reducer and strategic direction.
Table 1: Source adapted from Bivainiene, L (2007)
It can be noted from the above table that the definition for brand image is constantly evolving
and there is less agreement on its appropriate definition (Dobni, D. and Zinkhan, G. M. 1990).
Consistent with definitions by Herzog, H (1963) and Newman, J. W (1957), among others and an
associative network memory model of brand knowledge, brand image is defined as perceptions about
a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory’ (Keller, L.K 1993).
Figure 1: Brand Identity Framework, Source Rovaha 2017, Ronald van Haaften
Aaker, (1997) developed the brand identity model above which contains four perspectives and
twelve dimensions. Aaker (1996) defined brand identity as:
‘Unique set of brand associations that brand strategists create. These associations represent
what the brand stands for and imply a promise to customers. Brand identity helps establish a
relationship between the brand and customer by generating a value proposition involving
functional, emotional, or self-expressive benefits’ (Aaker, 1996).
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Figure 2: Keller’s Brand Equity Model, Source: Strategic Brand Management, p.108
Brand Equity Model concept is simple; it is that in order to build a strong brand, you must
shape how consumers think and feel about your product (Keller, L, K 2013, p.107). The pyramid
shows four fundamental questions customers ask regarding the brand, these are further divided in to
six building blocks that must be in place for brand to reach the top of the pyramid (Keller, L. K.
2013, p.107).
Figure 3: Double Vortex Brand Equity Model; Source Chernatony, de. L & Riley, Dall’Olmo. F (1998)
Chernatony and Riley (1998) devised the double vortex brand equity model show that a
brand’s intangibles related to brand personality are as important as the brands’ functional capabilities
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related to hardcore product performance (Chernatony, de. L & Riley, Dall’Olmo. F, 1998). Vision,
mission, and values are important part of the double vortex framework. The visual elements of name,
logo and product design are the components that have an effect on the brand image, the different
elements vary in the importance depending on the audience. (Chernatony, de. L & Riley, Dall’Olmo.
F, 1998).
Brand image is comprised of 4 major factors; loyalty, recognition, value and expansion
Factors of loyalty to a brand
Factors determining purchase
Factors of brand flexibility
Level of repeated purchase
Loyalty Degree
Factors of brand recognition
Strong and weak characteristics of a brand
Price and value ration
Quality evaluation
Brand Position
Level of realization and awareness
Brand image factors
Factors of brand value
Understanding the price
Price and value compatibility
Advantages over competitors
Degree of price elasticity
Factors of brand expansion
Brand characteristics and benefits
Areas of brand expansion
Factors of brand weakening
Figure 4: Brand Image factors (Scott, 2001, P. 534-542)
2.4 Brand Knowledge
‘If knowledge is defined as an individual’s problem-solving capability then it is obvious that
memory and learning are foundations of knowledge’ (Kenning, P & Plassmann, H. 2005,
p.349)
The relevance of brand knowledge has been established by many authors like Kohli and
Leuthesser, (2001); Richards, Foster, and Morgan (1998), as a primary step in building strong brands
(Keller, L.K. 1993). Three of the core components of brand knowledge are brand awareness, brand
attitude, and brand uniqueness. These individual brand components are defined as ‘brand identities’
and all of them together make up ‘the brand’ (Keller, L.K, 1993). The importance of knowledge in
memory to consumer decision making has been well established. Understanding the content and
structure of brand knowledge is important since it influences what the consumer thinks of a brand
(Keller, L. K. 1993). Emphasis is put on the brand name component of the brand identities, defined
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as ‘part of a brand which can be vocalized’ (Kotler, p. 1991, p 442), though other components of the
brand identities like brand logo or symbol also come in consideration.
2.4.1 Brand awareness
Brand Awareness is the first dimension of brand knowledge, it is related to the strength of the
brand in consumers’ memory, it is reflected by consumer’s ability to identify the brand under various
conditions (Rossiter, J. R and Percy, L. 1987). In other words, how well do the brand identities serve
their function? Brand name awareness aims to achieve the ease with which a brand name will come
to mind (Keller, L. K. 1993). Brand recognition and brand recall performance help create brand
recognition, it relates to consumer’s ability to confirm past exposure to the brand when give the
brand cue thus brand recognition ensures that consumers can correctly identify the brand as having
seen or heard in the past (Keller, L. K. 1993). Brand recall requires that consumers can generate the
brand from their memory, brand awareness aims that the consumers think of the brand when they
think about the product category thus brand awareness plays an important role in the consumers
decision making process (Keller, L. K. 1993).
2.5 Brand Personality
Figure 5: Brand Personality Framework, Source; Superskill Graphics Pte Ltd.
The figure shows Aaker’s brand personality dimensions. It is based on the idea that brands in order
to bridge the gap between people and the brand, need to associate human characteristics associated
with the brand.
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One route to expand the brand is to create or enhance the personality of the brand (Aaker, A. D.
2012). Brand personality refers to set of human characteristics associated with a brand (Aaker, L. J.
1997). Research on consumer behavior has shown that brand personality plays an important role in
consumer decision making (Aaker, L. J. 1997). ‘Brand personality is based on the brand-as-person
perspective’, for some brands the personality can provide a link to the brands emotional and self-
expressive benefits as well as a basis for customer/brand relationships and differentiation’ (Aaker, A.
D. 1996).
‘A favorable brand personality is thought to increase consumer’s preference and usage
(Sirgy, 1982), increase emotions in consumers (Biel, 1993), increase level of trust and loyalty
(Fournier, 1998), encourage active processing on the part of the consumer (Biel, 1992) and
provide a basis for product differentiation (Aaker, 1996)’ (Bivainiene, L. 2007).
‘First, many scholars have examined the antecedents of brand personality and brand equity from a
cognitive perspective. Aaker defined four basic dimensions of brand equity: perceived quality, brand
awareness, brand association, and brand loyalty’ (Liao, Wu, Rivas and Ju, 2017).
2.6 Consumer Neuroscience
The discipline of consumer neuroscience, in a business context is also known by the name
‘neuro-marketing’ (Hubert and Kenning, 2008). Neuro-marketing promises to significantly increase
knowledge of marketing issues like price-perception, advertising efficiency, branding, and purchase
behavior (See Kenning and Plassman, 2005; Plassmann et al, 2015). In the past few years, interest in
the field of consumer neuroscience has increased considerably (Kenning. P & Linzmajer, M, 2010).
The manner in which decision-making problem is presented can affect consumers preferences, this
phenomenon is called ‘framing effect’ (Kenning, P et al, 2009). Opposing to the rationality
assumption of economic theory people tend to be risk takers when they face a problem that is framed
negatively and more risk averse when they face a problem positively framed (Tversky. A. and
Kahneman. D, 1981). Studies proved that framing effect occurs as a result of an integration of the
conscious and unconscious implicit and explicit background information in the decision-making
process (Kenning, P et al, 2009).
Availability of new technology in the field of neuroscience now enables scientists to capture
unconscious and emotional processes in addition to the existing behavioral data (Hubert, M and
Kenning, P 2008; Kenning, P and Plassmann, D 2008). A central role during the decision-making
process happens when, brain activation occurs in the medial prefrontal cortex area and the anterior
cingulate cortex, this is where integration of implicit framing information like emotions and
unconsciousness occur (Kenning, P and Plassmann, D 2005). Brands act as frames and influence
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consumer’s preferences (Deppe et al. 2005, 2007). Researchers acclaim that our thoughts arise from
images rather than words (Zaltman, G, 1997), two-thirds of all stimuli reach the brain through visuals
(Kosslyn et al. 1990). Research on consumer neuroscience inspects area related to consumption and
marketing through neuroscientific research, it has enabled researchers to better understand human
behavior in the decision-making processes (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010). Vast majority of
researchers agree the importance of emotions in consumer decision making, yet most research
methods are biased towards reason (Zaltman, G, 1997).
Description and Focus of Measurement of Commonly Used
Neurophysiological Tools
Brain Imaging Tools
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI)
Neural activity by changes in blood
flow
Position Emission Tomography (PET)
Metabolic activity by radioactive
isotopes
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electrical brain activity on the scalp
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Changes in magnetic fields by brain
activity
Table 2: Source adapted from Kenning, P et al, 2012, p.681
Various neurobiological methods such as electroencephalography (EEG see Table-2) have
been used in marketing research since a while now, neuroimaging technology now enables us to
directly observe the processes in brain through methods such as positron emission tomography (PET
see Table-2), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI see Table-2) and other such methods
(Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010). In commercial applications, EEG is a popular method because
it is the least expensive method, in contrast fMRI is widely used in scientific and clinical use and less
often in marketing and other business-related applications, due to very high cost there is little interest
in PET for commercial use in neuromarketing (Hsu, M, 2017). Access to analyzing cortical areas
activated during the processing of a stimuli in consumer’s brain provides new possibilities that were
not achievable before, it enabled researchers to observe the entire brain and helped detect new
devices that can be associated with consumer behavior (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010). Being
able to observe the brain activity now provides an objective perspective of the science of consumer
decision making (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010).
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2.6.1 Brand Preferences
For brands to succeed, brand owners need to understand how consumers make the buying
decision (Barden, 2013, p.5). Preferences are predominately influenced by emotions, based on the
fact that highly emotional events have a more vivid, clear and great detailed memory; this means that
preferences built on emotions are more robust than preferences built on deliberations (Sharot et al,
2004). Neuro-marketing is the idea that bridges psychology and economics to understand consumer
decision making (Barden, 2013, p. 7). Aaker (2012) argues that in order for one brand to be preferred
over another, they need to stand out by expanding the brand beyond only functional benefits.
Functional benefits often fail to be the unique selling proposition for most brands, since they can be
copied easily (Aaker, D, 2012).
Scientific evidence shows that people do not make decisions in the way marketers commonly
and simplistically assume (Barden, 2013). Emotions are one of the most important factors to drive
behavior, marketers have sought to maximize consumer’s positive emotional associations with the
products and tried minimizing the negative associations (Hsu, M, 2017). In a well-publicized Coke
versus Pepsi fMRI study, McClure et al. (2004), explained that people prefer Coke because of brand
recognition over Pepsi in a non-blind tasting (by differentially activating the dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex that governs cognitive information processing) (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010). However,
similar brain areas, mostly associated with pleasant emotions, were activated for both drinks in blind
tasting, this explained that consumers prefer one brand (in this case Coke) over another due to brand
recognition and not taste preferences (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010).
Plassmann et al. (2007) identified the neural correlates of retail brand loyalty. The study
asked people to choose between retail brands for the purchase of an identical garment, selecting the
brand which they would prefer, in the fMIR study (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010). Subjects
were divided in to two groups, one of ‘loyal customers’ and other ‘dis-loyal customers’; data analysis
showed that loyal customers integrate emotions into the decision-making process in a more intense
manner, through activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, in short, favorite retail brand can
acts as a relevant rewarding stimulus on a behavioral level (Kenning. P & Linzmajer. M, 2010).
2.6.2 Cortical Relief
Barden (2013) explains the discovery of cortical relief by the German Neuroeconomist
Professor Peter Kenning and his associates. In the discovery of cortical relief, Dr. Peter Kenning and
his associates looked at brain scans of people who were shown photographs of pairs of brands. These
photos either included the person’s stated favorite brand or not (Barden, 2013.p5). In the experiment
when a favorite brand was included, the consumers brain showed significantly less activity in the
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areas involved in reflective thinking, an effect named ‘cortical relief’ or first-choice brand effect.
During the experiment brain regions involved in intuitive decision making were triggered which
means that we pick our favorite brands without having a second thought (Barden, 2013, p.5). This
proved that in case of a low involvement product such as picking a ketchup for example; consumer
will pick the product that is the most preferred which then causes cortical relief to happen (Jungar,
2015). The idea behind cortical relief is that the entire purchase decision is done in the sub-conscious
limbic part of the brain, also what we call the emotional part of the brain and there is absolutely no
cognitive activity involved in the purchase decision making process during cortical relief (Jungar,
2015).
Research have shown that different brain areas govern gains and losses, neuroimaging tools
showed that one brain area, associated with utility and reward (ventral striatum), is activated in the
prospect of an economic gain while a different brain area associated with losses (insular cortex), is
activated in the prospect of economic loss (Kuhnen, CM and Knutson, B 2005). When people gain
some useful good or incentive by making a judgement, the ‘reward area’ of the brain is activated
therefore, feeling of utility correlate with the reward system activation of brain (Kenning, P &
Plassmann, H. 2005, p.348). Brand preference is defined as picking one brand out of several other
brands, when we pick our preferred brand, the reward system in our brain is activated; picking one
brand out of several occurs frequently in consumers every-day life (Kenning, P & Plassmann, H.
2005, p.346-347).
According to Kenning. P & Plassmann. H, 2005, p 347:
In a research experiment, Deppe et al. could show in a simulated buying decision tasks
between sensorily similar fast-moving consumer goods, only the subjects preferred brand
provoked a distinct mode of decision-making. In their fMIR study, subjects were asked to
make binary decisions between different sensorily undistinguishable consumer good brands.
One of the results of the study that Deppe et al. 2005 found reduced activation in the
dorsolateral prefrontal, posterior pariental and occipital cortices and the left premotor
area in the brain, only when the chosen brand was the subjects’ favorite one.
Simultaneously activity was increased in the inferior precuneus and posterior cingulate,
right superior frontal gyrus, right supramarginal gyrus and most pronounced in the
ventromedial cortex.
Marketers coined the term ‘autopilot’ shopping for this phenomenon where decision making
happens in the unconscious part of the brain, in case of first-choice brands (Barden, 2013, p.11).
Consumers brain on autopilot shopping is rewarding itself with dopamine, every time they choose a
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preferred brand on autopilot, it also reduces the stress levels of the shopper (Jungar, 2015). Inititally
marketers didn’t see autopilot shopping as a favorable consumer behavior but overtime research
showed that marketers should aim for it (Jungar, 2015). Jungar (2015) in her blog mentions that
brand owners should try and achieve autopilot shopping in consumers because otherwise customers
will re-evaluate their brand preference (Jungar, 2015). Another outcome of the cortical relief study
was that it only comes in effect when the respondent’s favorite brand is on the line, even a second
favorite brand will not trigger this intuitive decision making (Barden, 2013, p.6). Scientists call this
‘first-choice brand effect’. According to Barden (2013), research indicates that ‘the optimal target is
to maximize the number of consumers for whom the brand stands number one, being in the relevant
set is not sufficient, no revenue is earned by the brand that was nearly bought’ (Barden, 2013. p.6).
2.6.3 System 1, System 2
Daniel Kahneman investigated factors that influence the human decision-making process. In
his book Thinking, fast and slow, Daniel Kahneman mentions that there are two ways that our
thought process work (Kahneman, D, 2011). System 1 and System 2; the two systems include all
many key findings that have been written about in the past research on human decision-making
process; System 1 which is automatic and fast, is where all the fast, automatic decisions happen, it is
the intuition and perception part of the brain (Kahneman, D, 2011). System 2 which is more slow and
logical thinking, on the other works step by step, this system enables humans to make reflective,
deliberate decisions (Kahneman, D, 2011). The aim of strong brands is to activate system 1 and
avoid system 2 processing, weak brands, by contrast, activate system 2, this occurs when consumers
think about the purchase decision and preferences; Dr. Peter Kenning framework reveal brands that
induce ‘cortical relief’ are processed in System 1 (Barden, 2013, p.9). Kahneman came up with the
theory first in 1970s, having noticed that people often make mistakes in their decisions and that our
judgements are often incorrect (Kelly, A, 2017). This research changed widely held assumption
about human nature where researchers thought that our decisions are the voice of reason in most
cases, except for occasions when our decisions are overcome by emotions (Kelly, A, 2017),
Kahneman and Tversky argued that while we do use reason in our decisions, often times we rely on
thinking that is quick and it requires less effort than rational decisions (Kelly, A, 2017).
Depending on various intrinsic and extrinsic factors, both thought processes influence our
decision-making process; these models are defined as system 1 and system 2 (Kahneman, D, 2011).
Most people self-identify themselves with system 2 because when we use System 2, we are unlikely
to make mistakes, system 2 requires selective and sustained attention (Kahneman, D, 2011). Most
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people are lazy to use System 2 because of changes in motivation and self-control, in moments like
that they rely back on System 1 (Kahneman, D, 2011).
Bruva & Tang (2018) proposed the base of problem in Kahneman’s theory about Attention &
Effort, they state that attention is not necessarily effortful, there are two different modes of attention
(Bruva, B & Tang, Y-Yi, 2018). One mode of attention is associated with sympathetic dominance
and adaptive gain modulation to handle the demands of cognitive tasks however, evidence shows
that it is dissimilar to effort (Bruva, B & Tang, Y-Yi, 2018). The other form of attention is associated
with parasympathetic dominance and can occur effortlessly, Bruva & Tang (2018) agree with
Kahneman’s claim: ‘Objective cognitive effort can occur with attention under sympathetic
dominance’ however, Bruva & Tang (2018) showed that attention can also be achieved without
sympathetic dominance, and, sympathetic dominance can happen in without attention.
2.7 Brand Loyalty
Brand Loyalty have remained an important topic in marketing research. Retaining customers
is lucrative for businesses, companies need to focus on their marketing capabilities to maintain long-
term relationship with customers, in other words, improving customer loyalty can help with
sustainable growth and profit generation (Hallowell, R. 1996). Band loyalty is a major factor
contributing towards brand equity, building brand loyalty is integral within modern, competitive
marketing environment to achieve a competitive edge over other brands (Islam et al, 2014). With the
changing marketing conditions, understanding the factors that contribute to brand loyalty is critical
for brands, brand loyalty will determine consumers brand preferences, loyal customers tend to repeat
the perchance of the brand without considering alternatives and will ten to buy more regularly (Islam
et al, 2014). Tarpey writes about brand loyalty that, repeat shopping behavior involves taking action
out of one’s commitment, alternative brands are always available, thus brand loyalty has to do with
brand-related commitment of the purchaser (Tarpey, Sr. 1974).
Brand Loyalty refers to a customer’s attachment with a brand (Liu, Li, Mizerski & Soh, 2012).
Although brand loyalty is an important topic in marketing research (De Villiers, 2015; He, Li &
Harris, 2012), the factors involved, and definitions vary greatly. Some studies focus on the attitudinal
loyalty (see Kressmann et al, 2006) while others focus on the behavioral brand loyalty by measuring
buying frequency (Romaniuk & Nenycz-Thiel, 2013). Attitudinal brand loyalty means consumers’
commitment and intention to repurchase the brand (Russell-Bennett et al, 2007).
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3. Research Methodology
3.1 Research Methodology Introduction
‘Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought.’
Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (Nobel Prize Winner & Biochemist, 1893-1986)
The previous chapter consisted of prior literature about Brand Storytelling and related
subjects. It consisted of why and how Brand Storytelling is used by the Irish food industry. This
chapter presents a review of research methodology which is going to be used in this research.
The key activities and their impact on the research will be highlighted. The research
philosopher’s approaches, strategy, choices, time horizons, data collection, sampling design
processes, limitations and ethical issues will be covered in the following section.
Saunders et al. (2009) defines research as a means to increase knowledge by figuring
things out in a systematic way. Research is integrating a review of the existing knowledge with
the creation of new knowledge in a particular field (Riley et al, 2000). Fisher defined
methodology as a way of conducting research, the aim of research methodology is to act as a tool
to help researcher answer the research question by collecting the relevant information (Fisher,
2004).
This research methodology section consists of five sections; research design, data
collection instruments, data analysis procedures, research ethics and limitations of methodology.
To assist with this section the book ‘Research Methods for Business Students’, by Saunders et al
was used. Saunders et al, (2015) compare marketing research methodology to layers of an onion
(see diagram below), where the layers represent the stages of research one needs to uncover to
reach the objectives in the middle of the onion. To ensure credibility and good standard of
research, it is integral to focus on every layer of the research onion.
This research was conducted using the research approach presented in the Figure 1,
which comprises five layers, the outside layer: research philosophy, methodical choice, research
strategies, time horizon, and techniques and procedures which are in the middle of the research
onion. After uncovering every layer, the middle layer of the research data collection and
