Wilfrid Laurier University
Wilfrid Laurier University
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Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)
2020
Be Kind to Your Mind: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing
Be Kind to Your Mind: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing
the Benefits of Mindfulness and Self-Compassion vs. Social Skills
the Benefits of Mindfulness and Self-Compassion vs. Social Skills
Training Among Children and Adolescents
Training Among Children and Adolescents
Lindsey Feltis
felt4850@mylaurier.ca
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Feltis, Lindsey, “Be Kind to Your Mind: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing the Benefits of
Mindfulness and Self-Compassion vs. Social Skills Training Among Children and Adolescents” (2020).
Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive). 2269.
https://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/2269
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Be Kind to Your Mind: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing the Benefits of Mindfulness
and Self-Compassion vs. Social Skills Training among Children and Adolescents
by
Lindsey E. Feltis
MASTER’S THESIS
Submitted to the Department of Psychology/Faculty of Science in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Master of Arts in Developmental Psychology
Wilfrid Laurier University
© Lindsey Erin Feltis 2020
ii
Abstract
Childhood and adolescence can be difficult for young people as they navigate a variety of
significant transitions. Thus, it is imperative that researchers focus on programs that support
children and adolescents during this time. Mindfulness and self-compassion are two such
programs that may promote positive youth development. Mindfulness and self-compassion have
been explored in the adolescent context, and mindfulness has been explored with young children,
however research on self-compassion for children is currently lacking. The present studies were
designed to examine the feasibility, acceptability and potential benefits of a combined
mindfulness + self-compassion program for children and adolescents in the summer camp
setting. In Study One, adolescent camp counsellors (n=25) were randomly assigned to one of
two training conditions: mindfulness + self-compassion (n=13) or social skills training (n=12).
Throughout the summer, counsellors led activities for their campers that related to their
respective conditions. It was expected that adolescent camp counsellors in the mindfulness +
self-compassion condition would experience greater increases in mindfulness, self-compassion,
resilience, empathy and sympathy, emotion regulation, authenticity, and life satisfaction, when
compared to their control condition (social skills training) counterparts. Additionally, it was
expected that adolescents in the mindfulness + self-compassion condition would experience
greater decreases in social anxiety and depression, when compared to participants in the control
condition. Results indicated that counsellors in both conditions experienced significant increases
in mindfulness, self-compassion, self-esteem, resilience, emotion regulation, and life satisfaction.
Additionally, compared to their control condition counterparts, counsellors in the mindfulness +
self-compassion condition experienced greater increases in life satisfaction and authenticity, with
their increases in resilience approaching statistical significance. Study Two focused on the
iii
feasibility, acceptability and potential benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion for young
campers (n=231). It was expected that young campers would experience the same benefits as the
aforementioned adolescent camp counsellors. Contrary to hypotheses, campers in the
mindfulness + self-compassion condition did not experience greater benefits than their social
skills training condition counterparts on any of the assessed outcomes, demonstrating that further
research is needed in order to examine the potential benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion
for children. Limitations and suggestions for future research are included in the general
discussion. The present set of studies expands upon the research on mindfulness and self-
compassion, and explores the potential benefits for young children and adolescents innovatively
by using active control groups and conducting research in the summer camp setting. Overall, the
present set of studies contributes to existing literature that suggests mindfulness and self-
compassion promote positive development for adolescents, and illustrates the need for additional
research for mindfulness and self-compassion in the context of childhood.
Keywords: mindfulness, self-compassion, children, adolescents, summer camp, life
satisfaction, authenticity, resilience
iv
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank the two women who continually support me, challenge
me and inspire me, my supervisors, Dr. Nancy Kocovski and Dr. Kim P. Roberts. I consider
myself very lucky to have spent the past few years working closely with not one, but two
amazing women, who embrace my enthusiasm and who instill in me a desire for excellence.
I’d also like to thank my committee member Dr. Alexandra Gottardo for her insightful feedback
on many thesis drafts, Dr. Jennifer Robertson-Wilson for serving on my committee and Dr.
Bruce McKay for chairing my defense. Additionally, I’d like to thank all of the research
assistants who supported this project: Jenna Sommerville, Poppy Hua, Jalen Manett, Holly
Nelson, Kelly Schaus, and give special recognition to Ashley Siegel for her assistance with
program delivery. I’d also like to thank my friends and family for their continuous support on
this incredible journey, especially my mother, Patti, for her unconditional love and
encouragement. Finally, I want to acknowledge the overnight summer camp in Southwestern
Ontario who graciously participated in this research project. I want to thank the camp, their
executive director, camp director, leadership team, counsellors and every single camper who
participated in this research. This research would not be possible without you.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………ii
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….iv
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………….v
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………..vi
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………viii
List of Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………ix
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..1
Study One…………………………………………………………………………………………22
Method……………………………………………………………………………………22
Results……………………………………………………………………………………33
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..38
Study Two………………………………………………………………………………………..44
Method……………………………………………………………………………………45
Results……………………………………………………………………………………50
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..59
General Discussion………………………………………………………………………………65
References………………………………………………………………………………………..82
Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………….93
Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………..112
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………114
vi
List of Tables
Table 1. Mindful Self-Compassion and Making Friends with Yourself Program Activities……..93
Table 2. Study 1 Counsellor Demographics by Condition………………………………………94
Table 3. Study 1 and 2 Constructs Assessed and Measures Completed by Counsellors and
Campers………………………………………………………………………………………….95
Table 4. Study 1 and 2 Activities for Counsellors and Campers by Condition………………….96
Table 5. Study 1 Baseline Measures Compared Across Conditions- Counsellors………………97
Table 6. Study 1 Pearson Correlations among Baseline Variables- Counsellors……………….98
Table 7. Study.1 Acceptability and Feasibility Compared Across Conditions- Counsellors……99
Table 8. Study.1 Self-compassion and Mindfulness at Baseline, Mid-program and Post-program-
Counsellors……………………………………………………………………………………..100
Table 9. Study 1 Outcome Variables at Baseline and Post-program- Counsellors…………….101
Table 10. Study 2 Camper Demographics by Condition……………………………………….102
Table 11. Study 2 Baseline Measures Compared Across Conditions- Campers……………….103
Table 12. Study 2 Pearson Correlations among Baseline Variables- Campers………………..104
Table 13. Study 2 Outcome Variables at Baseline and Post-program- Campers………………105
Table 14. Study 2 Outcome Variables with Age as a Covariate at Baseline and Post-program-
Campers…………………………………………………………………………………………106
Table 15. Study 2 Sample Sizes for each Condition by Age Group- Campers…………………107
Table 16. Study 2 Outcome Variables at Baseline and Post-program- By Campers’ Age…….108
Table 17. Study 2 Completers (all eight measures) vs. Non-completers by Condition, Age and
Gender- Campers……………………………………………………………………………….109
vii
Table 18. Study 2 Completers (all eight measures) vs. Non-completers on Baseline Variables-
Campers…………………………………………………………………………………………110
Table 19. Study 2 Attrition Rates by Age Group (participants who completed less than all eight
measures)……………………………………………………………………………………….111
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Study 1 Counsellor Participant Flow…………………………………………………112
Figure 2. Study 2 Camper Participant Flow……………………………………………………113
ix
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Pre-program Surveys for Counsellors……………………………………………114
Appendix B: Mid-program Surveys for Counsellors……………………………………………126
Appendix C: Post-program Survey for Counsellors……………………………………………133
Appendix D: Pre-program Surveys for Campers……………………………………………….146
Appendix E: Post-program Surveys for Campers………………………………………………154
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
1
Be Kind to Your Mind: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing the Benefits of
Mindfulness and Self-Compassion vs. Social Skills Training among Children and
Adolescents
Adolescence can be a challenging time, filled with physiological, social and
environmental transitions (Bluth, Mallarkey, & Lathren, 2018; Sutton, Schonert-Reichl, Wu, &
Stewart Lawlor, 2018; Ecces, 1999). Adolescence often refers to the years between 12 and 20
when adolescents experience significant physiological changes as they progress through puberty;
this developmental period is characterized by rapid biological and cognitive growth (Meeus, van
de Schoot, Keijsers, Schwartz, & Branje, 2010; Steinberg, 2005; Roeser & Pinela, 2014).
Additionally, identity formation is a particularly salient process throughout adolescence
(Erikson, 1968; Neff & McGehee, 2010). As teenagers begin to ask themselves “who am I?”,
they face intense pressures from their teachers, peers and parents to perform well academically
and socially (Neff & McGehee, 2010). Adolescents must balance their desire for autonomy with
their desire for intimacy; their interpersonal relationships change as they begin to distance
themselves from their parents and prioritize their time with friends and classmates (Eccles,
1999). Furthermore, adolescence is often marked by the environmental transition from
elementary school to high school. These significant transitions, accompanied by rapid
developments, often lead to a variety of challenges for adolescents, including heightened
insecurity, self-doubt and self-criticism (Klingle & Van Vliet, 2017). Additionally, Eccles (1999)
suggests that adolescence may not be the only developmental period characterized by rapid age-
related advances. Eccles (1999) suggests that middle childhood and early adolescence (the years
between 6 and 14) are both characterized by changes in children’s biological and cognitive
functioning.
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
2
A “crucial shift” (Eccles, 1999, p. 32) in children’s critical thinking abilities occurs at
approximately age six, as children’s self-awareness and self-evaluation skills improve; social
comparison then becomes increasingly predominant throughout middle childhood. Furthermore,
the personalities, behaviours and tendencies that children develop in middle- to late-childhood
often persist into adolescence and adulthood (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). When childhood and
adolescence are considered in tandem with one another, it becomes evident that both time
periods are characterized by significant transitions that may leave young people emotionally
vulnerable. Consequently, it becomes important that children and adolescents have positive
coping strategies they can rely on as they navigate the inevitable challenges of growing up.
Additionally, childhood and adolescence may provide a “window of opportunity” (Roeser &
Pinela, 2014, p. 10) for young people to be introduced to programs, such as those teaching
mindfulness and self-compassion, that may enable children and adolescents to flourish.
Therefore, the present study focused on the feasibility, acceptability and potential benefits of
mindfulness and self-compassion practices for children and adolescents. Although some
researchers have explored the potential benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion for
adolescents (Bluth & Blanton, 2014; Bluth, Gaylord, Campo, Mullarkey, & Hobbs, 2016; Roeser
& Pinela, 2014), self-compassion has not yet been examined in children under the age of 12.
Additionally, although mindfulness has been examined in child populations (Bernay, Graham,
Devich, Rix, & Rubie-Davies, 2016; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015; Schonert-Reichl & Stewart
Lawlor, 2010), the feasibility and potential benefits of a combined mindfulness and self-
compassion program has not yet been examined in children under the age of 12. The present
study will be the first to examine the potential benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion for
adolescents and children, in comparison to an active control group.
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
3
Mindfulness
Mindfulness refers to “paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and
nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145) and in recent years, considerable attention has
been given to mindfulness and its benefits for adults, adolescents and children. Given the
psychological benefits of practicing mindfulness, a number of mindfulness-based therapeutic
interventions have been developed for adults: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR;
Kabat-Zinn, 1990), Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Segal, Williams, &
Teasdale, 2002), and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993). Many of these
mindfulness-based interventions have also been adapted for adolescents and children. For
example, in one qualitative study, Van Vliet and colleagues (2017) examined the benefits of an
8-week MBSR program adapted for at-risk youth. They conducted semi-structured interviews
with all participants within two weeks of their participation in the program and found that
adolescents experienced improvements in their mood, self-control, present moment awareness,
and problem-solving skills (Van Vliet et al., 2017). Additionally, the adolescents reported
enhanced self-understanding and stronger interpersonal relationships from pre- to post-
intervention (Van Vliet et al., 2017).
Research on the effectiveness of MBCT for younger populations has also yielded
promising results, leading to the development of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for
Children (MBCT-C; Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller, 2010). MBCT-C is a group psychotherapy
program developed for children ages 9-13 years old (Semple et al., 2010). In a randomized
controlled trial, children with reading difficulties were referred by an educational psychologist to
participate in a 12-week study conducted by Semple and colleagues (2010). Children were
randomly assigned to one of two conditions: mindfulness intervention or waitlist control. After
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
4
participating in the program, mindfulness participants reported significantly fewer attention
problems than their waitlist control counterparts (Semple et al., 2010). Additionally, participants
with elevated anxiety reported significant decreases in their symptoms of anxiety, when
compared to the waitlist control participants (Semple et al., 2010). DBT is another mindfulness-
based intervention that has also been adapted and manualized for adolescents with recurring
depression, suicide ideation and self-injurious behaviours (Miller, Rathus, & Linehan, 2007).
Mindfulness is one of the key components of DBT and in a quasi-experimental investigation,
Rathus and Miller (2002) found that after 12 weeks of DBT training, adolescents experienced
significant decreases in suicide ideation and general psychopathological symptoms, such as
depression, interpersonal sensitivity and symptoms of borderline personality compared to their
training-as-usual counterparts. The benefits of mindfulness, however, are not limited to clinical
adolescent populations; school-based mindfulness programs have also been associated with
greater well-being and a number of positive social-emotional outcomes in children and
adolescents (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015; Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor, 2010; Bernay,
Graham, Devich, Rix, & Rubie-Davies, 2016).
Research studies examining school-based mindfulness programs have steadily increased
over the last two decades (Schonert-Reichl & Roeser, 2016). The development of classroom-
based interventions may be explained by the paradigm shift that focuses on the enrichment of
strengths and positive attributes and prevention of maladaptive behaviours, as opposed to the
adoption of a reactive response in times of turbulence (Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor,
2010). Additionally, Stewart Lawlor (2016) suggests that school-based mindfulness programs
focus holistically on children, allowing for positive moral, social, and emotional development. In
one quasi-experimental study, researchers evaluated the benefits of a teacher-delivered
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
5
mindfulness education program on social and emotional competence and student well-being
(Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor, 2010). Six teachers were selected to implement a
mindfulness education program in their classrooms and six teachers, and their classrooms, served
as waitlist controls. They used a combination of self-report measures and reports from teachers
to understand the benefits of the program. Teachers completed the Teachers’ Rating Scale of
Social Competence (TRSC; Kam & Greenberg, 1998) before and after participating in the
programs and according to their responses, students who received the mindfulness education
program experienced significant increases in attention, concentration and social emotional
competence (Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor, 2010). Teachers’ survey responses also
revealed that children who participated in the mindfulness education program experienced
significant decreases in aggression and oppositional behaviours, when compared to their waitlist
control counterparts (Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor, 2010).
In a recent randomized controlled trial, researchers assigned two classrooms to receive a
school-based mindfulness program (MindUP©; the Hawn Foundation, 2011) and two classrooms
to receive a traditional social responsibility program (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). All four
classrooms were comprised of fourth and fifth grade students between the ages of 9 and 11.
Following the interventions, researchers determined that children who received the MindUP©
curriculum showed significant improvements in mindfulness, empathy, and optimism, when
compared to children who received the traditional social responsibility program (Schonert-Reichl
et al., 2015). Additionally, children who participated in the MindUP© program demonstrated
increased peer-reported prosocial behaviours, when compared to their counterparts who
participated in the traditional social responsibility program (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015).
Overall, their findings suggested that school-based mindfulness programs may increase
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
6
children’s social-emotional competence and reinforce the notion that mindfulness may be
beneficial for children and adolescents. Another construct that may benefit young people is self-
compassion.
Self-compassion
Self-compassion, conceptualized by Neff (2003) as an alternative to traditional self-
esteem, is another construct that may protect children and adolescents from the inevitable
stressors of growing up. Self-compassion derives from the more general idea of compassion.
Gilbert (2009) defines compassion as an awareness and understanding of the pain and suffering
of others, coupled by the desire and effort to alleviate it, and suggests that developing
compassion for ourselves and others is fundamental in finding happiness and meaning in our
lives. Compassion involves understanding others’ distress and responding to their pain without
judgment or criticism (Gilbert & Procter, 2006). Gilbert and Procter (2006) then suggest that
self-compassion is ultimately utilizing these competencies in relation to the self and developing a
self-attitude that is characterized by warmth, kind-heartedness and care. In one ‘pre-trial study,’
researchers led adult participants through 12 weeks of Compassionate Mind Training and found
that individuals’ anxiety and depressive symptoms decreased significantly after participating in
the 12-week intervention (Gilbert & Procter, 2006). Compassionate Mind Training was
originally developed for individuals who are highly self-critical and may lack the ability to self-
soothe (Gilbert & Proctor, 2006). As children and adolescents develop, they often experience
difficulties with self-consciousness, self-criticism, and shame, which illustrates the importance of
helping young people develop inner compassion, or self-compassion (Gilbert & Irons, 2009).
Self-compassion is essentially “compassion turned inward” and encourages individuals to
treat themselves with the same compassion they would extend to a good friend (Neff &
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
7
McGehee, 2010, p. 226). Self-compassion is comprised of three fundamental principles: self-
kindness, common humanity and mindfulness (Neff, 2003a; Neff & McGehee, 2010). Self-
kindness refers to treating oneself with kindness and understanding, rather than harsh judgment
and self-criticism. Common humanity refers to the acknowledgement that imperfection is a part
of being human. The common humanity aspect of self-compassion encourages individuals to
recognize that their experiences are one small piece of a much larger puzzle and discourages
individuals from isolating themselves from others. Finally, mindfulness, in the context of self-
compassion, refers to viewing one’s thoughts and emotions in a balanced manner (Neff, 2003a).
These three unique, yet interrelated, concepts allow individuals to develop a compassionate
attitude towards themselves when facing adversity and when dealing with their own insecurities
and inadequacies.
Self-compassion may buffer the impact of negative feelings and experiences as it
encourages healthy emotion regulation (Neff, 2003a). As self-compassion requires that
individuals be open to all of their emotions, including the negative emotions, individuals learn to
effectively regulate those emotions. Additionally, Neff (2003) suggests that individuals who
embrace a self-compassionate attitude towards their own experiences may be more likely to treat
others with compassion, as they are less likely to engage in downward social comparisons.
Correlational research has revealed that self-compassion has been negatively associated with
anxiety and depression (Neff, 2003b) and other psychopathological symptoms (MacBeth &
Gumley, 2012). Correlational research has also revealed that self-compassion has been positively
associated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Neff, 2003b), subjective
happiness and gratitude (Booker & Dunsmore, 2019), self-improvement motivation (Breines &
Chen, 2012), authenticity (Zhang et al., 2019), resilience (Scoglio, Rudat, Garvert, Jarmolowski,
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
8
Jackson, & Herman, 2018), more frequent health behaviours and physical health (Homan &
Sirois, 2017) and superior interpersonal skills and stronger romantic relationships (Yarnell &
Neff, 2013; Neff & Beretvas, 2013).
These correlational findings then inspired a number of experimental studies that further
investigated the benefits of self-compassion. Although correlational research illustrates
associations between variables, experimental research allows for researchers to make causal
conclusions (Klein, 1992). For example, Leary and colleagues (2007) conducted a series of
studies that examined the implications of treating oneself compassionately in unpleasant
situations. They postulated that self-compassion may protect against negative experiences and
encourage a positive self-attitude when individuals are faced with inevitable unpleasant life
events and experiences (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). They began with
correlational research and found that self-compassion was negatively associated with
individuals’ levels of anxiety, sadness and self-consciousness, related to a variety of self-reported
events (Leary et al., 2007). In a series of follow-up studies, they repeatedly found that self-
compassion was associated with adaptive coping strategies in real and hypothetical unpleasant
situations, supporting the notion that self-compassion may buffer the impact of negative events
(Leary et al., 2007). In an experimental study, participants were asked to describe an unpleasant
experience from high school or college (one that led to feelings of failure and/or rejection), and
were then randomly assigned to one of four conditions: self-compassion, self-esteem, writing
control or true control. Participants in the self-compassion condition reported significantly lower
levels of negative affect, when compared to their counterparts in all three other conditions. Their
research demonstrated the effectiveness of inducing self-compassion through a short writing
prompt and further illustrated the beneficial nature of self-compassion.
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
9
Researchers have also begun looking at the benefits of self-compassion for various
unique clinical and non-clinical populations. For example, Kocovski and colleagues have
examined the benefits of self-compassion for individuals with elevated social anxiety. In one
experimental study, Harwood and Kocovski (2017) randomly assigned participants to one of two
writing prompts: self-compassion or control. Participants completed these writing tasks before
participating in an anxiety inducing event, delivering an impromptu three-minute speech.
Harwood and Kocovski found that self-compassion reduced anticipatory anxiety before a three-
minute speech task, for university students with elevated social anxiety. In another experimental
study, Blackie and Kocovski (2018) randomly assigned participants to one of three conditions:
self-compassion, rumination, or control, and found that the self-compassion induction decreased
individuals’ levels of post-event processing following an anxiety-inducing speech task, when
compared to the rumination and control conditions. To illustrate another example, Kelly and
colleagues have explored the role of self-compassion in eating disorder pathology. In a recent
study, lower levels of self-compassion predicted eating disorder symptoms in a sample of female
college students (Kelly, Vimalakanthan, & Carter, 2014). Given the beneficial nature of self-
compassion for clinical and non-clinical populations, researchers have developed a program that
aims to increase individuals’ levels of self-compassion.
The Mindful Self-Compassion program was developed by Neff and Germer (2013) with
exactly that goal in mind. Mindful Self-Compassion is an intervention that combines the
complementary benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion (see Table 1). The Mindful Self-
Compassion program is an 8-week program dedicated to increasing participants’ levels of self-
compassion. In a pilot study with adults, participants reported significant increases in self-
compassion, mindfulness, life satisfaction and happiness after participating in the 8-week
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
10
program (Neff & Germer, 2013). Participants also reported significant decreases in anxiety,
depression and stress (Neff & Germer, 2013). This pilot study demonstrated the beneficial nature
of Mindful Self-compassion, however did not include a control group. In a follow-up randomized
controlled trial, participants in the mindful self-compassion condition reported significant
increases in self-compassion, mindfulness, life satisfaction, happiness and compassion for others,
when compared to their waitlist control counterparts (Neff & Germer, 2013). Participants in the
experimental condition also reported significant decreases in anxiety, depression and stress,
when compared to their waitlist control counterparts (Neff & Germer, 2013). Their results
illustrate an important concept: Mindful Self-compassion is a feasible and acceptable method of
increasing individuals’ levels of self-compassion and has a myriad of other psychological
benefits.
Mindfulness and Self-compassion for Young People
Naturally, clinicians and researchers expanded their use of mindfulness and self-
compassion programs (i.e. Mindful Self-Compassion) to see if the programs would yield the
same positive outcomes in younger populations. Additionally, Neff and McGehee (2010) suggest
that adolescence may be the developmental period of life in which self-compassion is the lowest,
making early childhood and adolescence an ideal time to introduce young people to the concept.
In an exploratory study of the relationship between self-compassion and psychological resilience
in adolescents, Neff and McGhee (2010) found that higher levels of self-compassion were
associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety. Self-compassion has also been negatively
associated with non-suicidal self-injury and interpersonal conflicts in adolescence (Xavier, Pinto-
Gouveia, & Cunha, 2016). Self-compassion may provide adolescents with the opportunity to
relate to themselves in a more positive manner (Neff & McGehee, 2010). An additional study on
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
11
the benefits of self-compassion on adolescent well-being revealed that self-compassion was
positively correlated with life satisfaction, and negatively correlated with perceived stress and
negative affect in adolescents aged 11 to 18 (Bluth & Blanton, 2014). In another study,
conducted via online survey collection, Bluth and colleagues (2018) investigated the relationship
between self-compassion, curiosity and resilience in adolescents. Bluth et al. found that self-
compassion was positively associated with both curiosity and resilience (Bluth, Mullarkey, &
Lathren, 2018). These findings suggest that increases in self-compassion may be associated with
increased curiosity and resilience, buffering the impact of stressors and promoting positive
coping strategies.
Following the correlational research on self-compassion in adolescence, Bluth and
colleagues modified Neff and Germer’s (2013) Mindful Self-compassion program to be
emotionally and developmentally appropriate for adolescent populations (Bluth et al., 2016).
Bluth and colleagues developed Making Friends with Yourself (2016), an 6-week intervention
that introduces adolescents to mindfulness and self-compassion. When compared to waitlist
participants, individuals who participated in Making Friends with Yourself experienced
significant increases in self-compassion and mindfulness (Bluth et al., 2016). These findings
suggest that Making Friends with Yourself is an acceptable and feasible way to increase
adolescents’ levels of mindfulness and self-compassion. Making Friends with Yourself
participants also reported significant decreases in anxiety, depression and perceived stress, when
compared to their control counterparts, supporting the researchers’ hypothesis that self-
compassion decreased problem behaviours (Bluth et al., 2016). Additionally, Roeser and Pinela
(2014) have hypothesized that mindfulness and compassion training for children and adolescents
may increase emotional regulation abilities, empathy, prosocial motivation and prosocial
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
12
behaviours. Therefore, adopting a self-compassionate stance may benefit children and
adolescents greatly.
Depression
One of the aforementioned benefits of self-compassion has been its negative associations
with psychopathological symptoms, such as depression (Bluth et al., 2016; Marsh, Chan, &
MacBeth, 2018; Neff & McGehee, 2010) and social anxiety (Gill, Watson, Williams, & Chan,
2018). In adolescents, depression refers to a persistent feeling of sadness, and has been
associated with a myriad of concerning behaviours including: delinquency and substance use
(Brière, Janosz, Fallu, & Morizot, 2015), self-harm and suicidality (Balázs et al., 2013), and
increased risk of subsequent obesity (Roberts & Duong, 2015). Though research on self-
compassion in adolescence is in its nascent stage, empirical evidence suggests that self-
compassion may protect against the development and maintenance of depression in clinical and
non-clinical adolescent populations (Pullmer, Chung, Samson, Balanji, & Zaitsoff, 2019).
Depression, however, is not the only psychopathological concern for children and adolescents;
social anxiety presents its own assortment of concerns for young people.
Social Anxiety
Social anxiety has an early onset and is among one of the most common psychiatric
disorders in childhood (Beesdo et al., 2009). Social anxiety disorder is a disorder characterized
by an intense fear of embarrassing oneself or being negatively evaluated by others (Clark &
Wells, 1995). In a sample of adolescent males, social anxiety was significantly correlated with
trait anxiety and trait depression (Gonzalez, Field, Lasko, LaGreca, & Lahey, 1996). These
findings illustrated that social anxiety may be related to additional mental health concerns in
adolescents. Social anxiety and behavioural impairments have also been examined in a variety of
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
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online and in-lab contexts. In one experimental study, adolescents with social anxiety disorder
self-reported significant impairments in social skills when compared to healthy controls (Mesa,
Beidel, & Bunnel, 2014). In a series of experimental studies, Alfano and colleagues (2006) used
a variety of social role-play scenarios to examine the relationship between social phobia and
cognition in children aged 7-11 and adolescents aged 12-16. They found that children and
adolescents with social phobia reported significantly more negative self-talk than their healthy
control counterparts. Given the relevance of negative self-talk for young people with social
anxiety, adopting a self-compassionate stance may benefit them greatly. Based on adult literature
(Werner et al., 2014), Gill and colleagues (2018) hypothesized that self-compassion may benefit
adolescents with social anxiety by impacting three key cognitive processes: fear of negative
evaluation, self-focused attention, and cognitive avoidance. Partially in line with their theoretical
prediction, fear of negative evaluation and cognitive avoidance both mediated the impact of self-
compassion on social anxiety’s persistence in adolescents. Relating to oneself with self-
compassion may increase adolescents’ ability to keep others’ negative evaluations in perspective,
thereby decreasing their fear of negative evaluations. Additionally, self-compassion may
decrease cognitive avoidance by encouraging adolescents to recognize the common humanity of
their anxiety regarding social interactions, therefore decreasing the tendency to avoid these social
interactions. Hence, researchers are optimistic that interventions that increase self-compassion
may decrease childhood and adolescent social anxiety.
Resilience
Another mechanism by which mindfulness and self-compassion may benefit children and
adolescents is by increasing their resilience. Resilience can be defined as the possession of
strengths and attributes that lead individuals to thrive despite significant challenges and obstacles
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
14
in one’s life (Bernard, 1993; Masten, 2014; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012;). Luthar and Cicchetti
(2000) suggest that resilience is the “dynamic process” wherein individuals adapt positively,
despite significant adversity or trauma (p. 858). When children and adolescents demonstrate
resilience, they are able to “bounce back” after difficult situations; they are able to respond to
challenging life events with ease (Bluth & Eisenlohr-Moul, 2017). Resilience also protects
against physical and mental illness (Trompetter, de Kleine, & Bohlmeijer, 2017). Children with
highly developed resilience also often possess a variety of positive attributes including social
competence, excellent problem-solving abilities, sense of autonomy, and a feeling of purpose
and sense of direction for their lives (Bernard, 1993). Resilience, thus, is an incredibly valuable
skill for children and adolescents; empirical evidence suggests that self-compassion acts as a
‘resilience resource’ for teenagers and buffers against stressors (Trompetter, de Kleine, &
Bohlmeijer, 2017). Therefore, interventions that increase self-compassion may also increase
resilience and promote positive youth development among children and adolescents.
Empathy and Sympathy
Mindfulness and self-compassion may also promote positive development for young
people by increasing their empathy and sympathy for others. Both empathy and sympathy play
important roles in the development of social behaviour in children and adolescents (Vossen,
Piotrowski, & Valkenburg, 2015). Gilbert (2009) defines empathy as the ability to understand
others’ feelings and suggests it is characterized by compassionate curiosity. Furthermore, he
suggests that ‘true’ empathy is an “act of imagination” (p. 313). True empathy requires that we
briefly abandon our own background and biases in order to truly understand another’s thoughts
and emotions. Gilbert also makes an eloquent distinction between empathy and sympathy, stating
that empathy requires active and intentional contemplation, whereas sympathy is an automatic
MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
15
reaction to the pain and suffering of others. Gilbert (2009) defines sympathy as being moved
emotionally by others’ pain. Self-compassion encourages individuals to be emotionally open to
their own painful experiences (Neff, 2003a; Gilbert, 2009) and therefore those high in self-
compassion may be emotionally open to the painful experiences of others as well. In adults,
mindfulness and self-compassion programs have increased adults’ compassion for others,
suggesting that self-compassion fosters empathy and sympathy for others in adult populations
(Neff & Germer, 2013). Empirical evidence, however, regarding the relationship between self-
compassion and compassion-related constructs (e.g., empathetic concern, altruism) has been
mixed. For example, in a correlational study that included undergraduate university students and
adults recruited from the community, Neff and Pommier (2013) found that self-compassion was
positively associated with perspective taking and forgiveness in both university students and
community adults. However, self-compassion was only linked to compassion for humanity,
empathetic concern and altruism among adult participants. In children and adolescents, various
school-based mindfulness programs have led to increased prosocial behaviours (Cheang, Gillons,
& Sparkes, 2019; Schonert-Reichl & Stewart Lawlor, 2010; Viglas & Perlman, 2018), however
the relationship between self-compassion, and empathy and sympathy has not yet been
extensively explored in younger populations. We hoped to find evidence that provides some
clarity to the relationship between self-compassion, empathy and sympathy in younger
populations in the present study.
Life Satisfaction
Mindfulness and self-compassion programs may also increase life satisfaction in
childhood and adolescence (Bluth & Blanton, 2014; Bluth et al., 2016). Life satisfaction refers to
an individuals’ evaluation of their life and is a well-documented construct related to
